CHAPTER 7

Pressure

© 2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited

Chapter 7 Pressure

7.1 Pressure
7.2 Pressure in Liquids
7.3 Gas Pressure
7.1 Pressure

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
• explain what pressure means in terms of force
and area;
force
• recall and use the formula pressure = to
area
solve problems.
7.1 Pressure

Recall

A force is defined as either a push or a pull that one

object exerts on another object.

What is pressure? How is it

different from force?
7.1 Pressure

What is Pressure?

Pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area.

F
p=
A

where p = pressure (in Pa or N m−2);

F = force (in N);
A = area (in m2).
7.1 Pressure

Pressure
• Pressure is used when comparing the effect of forces
acting on a surface.
• The two cylinders shown below have the same weight
but different base areas.
• We are more interested in the force exerted per unit
area than the weight of each cylinder. Can you think of
reasons why?

10 N 10 N
4 cm2 2 cm2
7.1 Pressure

Pressure

The pointed tip of a thumbtack Why does a bulldozer have

and the cutting edges of scissor caterpillar wheels?
blades have small surface areas
in order for the force exerted per
unit area to be maximised.
7.1 Pressure

Worked Example
A rectangular block of butter of dimensions 10 cm × 4 cm × 3 cm
has a density of 870 kg m−3. Calculate
(a) its weight;
(b) the maximum possible pressure that acts when placed on a
horizontal surface;
(c) the minimum possible pressure that acts when placed on a
horizontal surface.
(Take g to be 10 N kg−1.)

Solution
(a) Volume V = 0.1 m × 0.04 m × 0.03 m = 1.2 × 10−4 m3
Mass m = ρ × V
= 870 kg m−3 × 1.2 × 10−4 m3 = 0.104 kg
Therefore, weight W = mg = 0.104 kg × 10 N kg−1 = 1.04 N
7.1 Pressure

Solution (continued)
(b) Maximum pressure acts when the butter rests on the
surface with the smallest area.

Surface of smallest area = 0.04 m × 0.03 m = 1.2 × 10−3 m2

force 1.04 N
Maximum pressure = area= = 867 Pa
1.2 × 10−3 m2

(c) Minimum pressure acts when the butter rests on the

surface with the largest area.

Surface of largest area = 0.1 m × 0.04 m = 4 × 10−3 m2

force 1.04 N
Minimum pressure = =
area = 260 Pa
4 × 10−3 m2
Chapter 7 Pressure

7.1 Pressure
7.2 Pressure in Liquids
7.3 Gas Pressure
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
• use the formula pressure due to a liquid p = hρg
to solve problems;
• describe and explain how pressure is transmitted
in hydraulic systems.
 7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Activity (Group)
Objective
Observe pressure at different depths of a liquid.

Instructions
1. In groups, make three holes on a mineral
water bottle at the same height and seal
the holes with masking tape. Fill the bottle
with water. Remove the masking tape
covering the holes simultaneously and
observe the water flowing out.
2. The water should appear to flow
uniformly and hit the tabletop at the
same distance from the bottle. This
shows that the pressure at the same
depth is uniform. (Part 1/3)
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Activity (Group)
3. Make three holes on the three containers below at the same
height and seal the holes with masking tape. Fill the
containers with water. Remove the masking tape covering the
holes simultaneously and observe the water flowing out.
4. The water should be projected from the holes of the three
containers with approximately similar angles. What can you
infer from this observation?

(Part 2/3)
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Activity (Group)

5. Make three holes in a vertical line on one of the

containers and seal them with masking tape. Fill the
container with water.
6. Remove the masking tape at the same time and observe
the water flowing out. What can you infer about the
relationship between depth and pressure?

(Part 3/3)
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Pressure at a Depth in a Liquid

The figure shows a column of liquid of
height h, base area A and density ρ.
height h
Volume V = Ah
Mass m = ρV
Weight W = mg
= (ρV)g
= ρ(Ah)g
base weight W
Pressure p at base of liquid column
area A
force weight W ρ(Ah)g
= area = = A
area A
Therefore, pressure p = hρg
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Worked Example
A diver goes from a depth of 10 m to 100 m underwater. Assuming
that the gravitational field strength is 10 N kg−1, and the density of sea
water is about 1025 kg m−3, determine the change in water pressure.

Solution
Pressure at 10 m = hρg
= 10 m × 1025 kg m−3 × 10 N kg−1
= 1.025 × 105 Pa
Pressure at 100 m = hρg
= 100 m × 1025 kg m−3 × 10 N kg−1
= 1.025 × 106 Pa
Change in water pressure = 1.025 × 106 Pa − 1.025 × 105 Pa
= 9.225 × 105 Pa
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Pascal’s Principle
If pressure is applied to an enclosed liquid, the pressure is
transmitted uniformly to all other parts of the liquid.
Example
• When the plunger is
compressed, the pressure due
to the force on the plunger is needle
transmitted uniformly through
the liquid to the needle.
• The liquid in the syringe is
plunger
forced out the other end of the
needle.
• This demonstrates Pascal’s
Principle.
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

The Hydraulic Press

• Pascal’s Principle is
applied in the hydraulic
press.
• Since pressure is
transmitted uniformly,
p Y = pX

FY FX
=
AY AX

• Since AY > AX, FY > FX.

7.2 Pressure in Liquids

The Hydraulic Press

By using a hydraulic press, a
small force FX can be used to
lift a heavy load FY.
dY
What is the ratio of dX ?
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Hydraulic Brake System

• If each large piston at the disc has

an area twice that of the small
master piston at the pedal, each
large piston will exert twice the
force that the driver applies on the
brake pedal.
• Thus, the force applied by the
driver is multiplied by the ratio of
the area of the pistons.
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Worked Example
A hydraulic press has two pistons with areas of 2 m 2 and 10 m2
respectively. A load of 10 000 N (e.g. a motor car) is placed on
the larger piston.
(a) What is the minimum force that must be exerted on the
smaller piston to lift this load?
(b) What is the distance that the smaller piston has to be
moved such that the load is raised by 1 m?
force
load
to raise by 1 m

incompressible fluid
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Solution
F
(a) Pressure in fluid due to load =
A
10 000 N
10 m2
= = 1000 Pa
This pressure is transmitted equally to the larger piston assuming
the fluid in the press is incompressible.
Hence, force F required on smaller piston = p × A
= 1000 Pa × 2 m2
= 2000
(b) N the Principle of Conservation of Energy,
Using
energy gained by large piston = work done on small piston
10 000 N × 1 m = 2000 N × d
d= 5 m
7.2 Pressure in Liquids

Worked Example
The glass tanks used to construct large aquariums can be up to 5 m
deep. Explain why the glass is usually thicker at the bottom of the
tank.

Solution
The pressure of the water
depends on the depth of
the water. The greater the water thicker
depth, the higher the glass at
pressure. The tank needs bottom
to be thicker at the
bottom to withstand this
large pressure.
Chapter 7 Pressure

7.1 Pressure
7.2 Pressure in Liquids
7.3 Gas Pressure
7.3 Gas Pressure

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
• Describe how the height of a liquid column may
be used to measure atmospheric pressure (i.e.
how a barometer works);
• describe how a manometer measures pressure
difference.
7.3 Gas Pressure

How do we measure
the pressure of gases? What is atmospheric
pressure?

How causes gas How do we measure

pressure? atmospheric pressure?
7.3 Gas Pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
• The Earth is surrounded by a layer of air called the
atmosphere.
• The atmosphere is a result of the Earth’s gravitational pull
on air molecules near the Earth’s surface.
• The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level is
1.013 × 105 Pa.
• This value can be expressed as one atmosphere (or 1
atm).
• Watch these videos for a demonstration of the effect of air
pressure. URL1 URL2
7.3 Gas Pressure

Effects of Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure decreases with
increasing height.

Mount Everest (8848 m above

sea level). Altitude sickness sets
in about 2400 m, when the drop
in pressure is too great.

At sea level, the

atmospheric pressure is
1.013 × 105 Pa.
sea level

Pressure increases
with increasing depth,
according to p = hρg.
7.3 Gas Pressure

Applications of Atmospheric Pressure

Can you explain how the following devices make
use of atmospheric pressure to work?

suction cup syringe

7.3 Gas Pressure

Measuring Atmospheric
Pressure — The Barometer
➊
The inverted glass
tube is pushed into vacuum
the mercury.

➋ Atmospheric pressure ➌ The column of

mercury has a
atmospheric forces the mercury into
pressure pressure equal
the glass tube.
to atmospheric
pressure.

mercury
7.3 Gas Pressure

Measuring Atmospheric
Pressure — The Barometer
• What is the height of the mercury column that exerts a
pressure equal to atmospheric pressure?

Density ρ of mercury = 13 600 kg m−3 and g = 9.8 N kg−1

Atmospheric pressure = 1.013 × 105 Pa

1.013 × 105 Pa = hρg

1.013 × 105 Pa
h = (13 600 kg m−3)(9.8 N kg−1)

= 0.76 m
• Hence, at atmospheric pressure (at sea level), the mercury
column has a height of 0.76 m or 760 mm.
7.3 Gas Pressure

Measuring Atmospheric
Pressure — The Barometer
• Note that atmospheric pressure can be expressed as
the height of the mercury column instead of in Pa.

i.e. 1.013 × 105 Pa = 1 atmosphere can be written as 760 mm Hg.

• To convert 760 mm Hg to Pa, first, express 760 mm in

m: 760 mm = 0.76 m
• Next, apply the formula p = hρg:
p = 0.76 m × 13 600 kg m−3 × 9.8 N kg−1
= 1.013 × 105 Pa
7.3 Gas Pressure

Worked Example
What is the pressure on you if you dive to a depth of 5 m
underwater? Assume the atmospheric pressure at the surface
of the water is 1.01 × 105 Pa, the density of water is 1000 kg m −3
and the gravitational field strength is 10 N kg −1.
Solution
Total pressure = atmospheric pressure at surface
+ liquid pressure due to weight of water
= 1.01 × 105 Pa + hρg
= 1.01 × 105 Pa + (5 m)(1000 kg m−3)(10 N kg−1)
= 1.51 × 105 Pa
7.3 Gas Pressure

Worked Example
In a simple barometer that measures
atmospheric pressure, the mercury
column is measured at 760 mm at sea Air is
level. Some air is then introduced into the introduced
vacuum at the top of the mercury column. into the
vacuum.
(a) Explain how this will affect the
mercury column.
(b) Determine the pressure due to the
trapped air, given that the height of the
mercury column is now 500 mm.
Atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg.
7.3 Gas Pressure

Solution
(a) The mercury level will fall.
The pressure in the space above the mercury column is no
longer zero.
The sum of the pressure due to the air in the space and the
pressure due to the column of mercury are equal to
atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the height of the mercury
column will fall.
Air is
(b) Pressure of trapped air
introduced
= 760 mm Hg – 500 mm Hg into the
vacuum. 500 mm
= 260 mm Hg
7.3 Gas Pressure

Worked Example
If mercury (ρm = 13 600 kg m−3) in a barometer is replaced with
water (ρw = 1000 kg m−3), determine the height of the water
column. The height of a mercury column is 760 mm at sea level.

Solution
The pressure measured by both the water (pw) and mercury (pw)
barometers must be the same at the same location.
pm = pw
hmρmg = hwρwg
0.76 m × 13 600 kg m−3 = hw × 1000 kg m−3
hw = 10.3 m
i.e. The height of the water column in the water barometer is
10.3 m.
7.3 Gas Pressure

Worked Example
What are the pressures in mm Hg at the points (A to F)
indicated on the mercury barometer?

Solution A
Point A: 0 mm Hg
220 mm
B
Point B: 220 mm Hg
Point C: 220 + 220 = 440 mm Hg 220 mm
C
Point D: 220 × 3 = 660 mm Hg
220 mm
Point E: 660 mm Hg (same as D) C D E

Point F: 660 + 300 = 960 mm Hg 300 mm

F
7.3 Gas Pressure

Measuring Pressure Difference

— The Manometer
• The manometer is an
instrument used to measure
differences in the pressure
of gases or liquids.
• When the manometer is not
connected to a gas supply,
both sides are open and
acted on by atmospheric
pressure only. Therefore,
they have equal heights.
7.3 Gas Pressure

Measuring Pressure Difference

— The Manometer
To measure the difference between the pressure due to the gas
supply pB and atmospheric pressure p0, carry out these steps:
Step 1
Identify the end that has the higher
pressure.
pB > p0 as the liquid level at B is lower
than at A.

Step 2
The height difference h gives the
difference between the gas pressure
and atmospheric pressure in mm Hg.
pB − p0 = hρ g
7.3 Gas Pressure

Worked Example
A manometer contains water in one limb and alcohol in the other.
The water level is 12 cm above the level indicated by the dotted line
X, while the alcohol is at a height 15 cm above level X. Calculate the
density of the alcohol given that the density of water is 1000 kg m −3.

Solution
At level X, the pressure is equal in both
arms (pressure at the same height is
15 cm
equal). 12 cm
p A = pB pA X pB
(0.12 m)(1000 kg m−3)(g) = (0.15 m)(ρ)(g)
ρ = (0.12 m × 1000 kg m−3) ÷ 0.15 m
= 800 kg m−3
7.3 Gas Pressure

Worked Example
The pressure pg of a gas in a container is measured using a manometer
and found to be 56 cm Hg. Determine the height difference between the
two arms, given that the atmospheric pressure p0 is 76 cm Hg.
Solution
Since the mercury in the right limb is at a
lower height than the mercury in the left limb,
p0 > pg

Hence, p0 – pg = pressure due to mercury ?

column
Pressure due to mercury column
= p0 − pg
= 76 cm Hg – 56 cm Hg
= 20 cm
The height difference is 20 cm Hg.
 Force acting per unit area
Chapter 7 Pressure p=
F
A
Pressure defined as where
(SI unit: Pa) p = pressure (Pa or N m−2)
examples F = force (N)
A = area (m2)

Atmospheric Pressure in Pressure

pressure gases in liquids
is
measured
using
Transmitted equally throughout
measured
using an enclosed liquid
Manometer
applied in
where given by Hydraulic machines
examples
Mercury barometer Pressure difference • Hydraulic press
• Car hydraulic disc
by given by brake system

Measuring the height Measuring the Pressure p = hρg

of the mercury column height difference where
above the surface of between liquid h = height of liquid column (m)
the mercury in the columns ρ= density of liquid (kg m−3)
trough g = gravitational field strength (N kg −1)
Chapter 7 Pressure

The URLs are valid as at 15 October 2012.

Acknowledgements
(slides 1−44) scuba diver © Richcareyzim | Dreamstime.com
(slide 7) thumbtack © Hedwig Storch | Wikimedia Commons |
CC-BY-SA-3.0
(slide 7) scissors © Modeha | Wikimedia Commons | CC-BY-
1.0
(slide 7) bulldozer © Anna Uciechowska | Wikimedia
Commons | CC-BY-SA-2.5,2.0,1.0
(slides 12, 13) water bottle © Whitesheep | Wikimedia
Commons | CC-BY-3.0
(slides 13, 14) tin container © Feureau | Wikimedia
Commons | CC-BY-SA-3.0
(slide 13) bucket © David | Wikimedia Commons | CC-BY-2.0
Chapter 7 Pressure

Acknowledgements
(slide 17) syringe © Biggishben | Wikimedia Commons | CC-
BY-SA-2.5, 2.0, 1.0
(slides 18, 19) car © Gors4730 | Dreamstime.com
(slide 26) Earth © Tonygers | Dreamstime.com
(slide 28) Mount Everest © Pavel Novak | Wikimedia
Commons | CC-BY-SA-2.5
(slide 29) syringe © Shuric | Dreamstime.com