‫ميحرالنمحرال‬

‫سال‬‫سمب‬‫متاو‬
‫هللا‬
‫تايآلضرلااو‬
‫يف نا• ام و مكقلخ‬
‫يفو )‪ (3‬نينمؤملل‬
‫ي‬
‫موقل تايآ ةباد نم ثب‬
‫)‪(4‬نونقوي‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah Hussein‬‬
This is An introduction to the endocrine system (The most important
2
system ). This part introduces the ideas of hormones and target
tissues. It then considers the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
and how these structures regulate the activity of much of the rest
of
.the endocrine system

Medical
Endocrinolog
y Introduction
I
Adrenal and gonadal steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, retinoid hormones,
are involved in intracellular receptors vitamin D 1,25 di hydroxyl choli calciferol
and activation of genes. This explains second messenger mechanism, adenylyl
cyclase-camp system, Ca-calmodulin 2nd messenger system and
phospholipid 2nd messenger system. Steroids and thyroid hormones act on
genetic machinery. Measurement of hormones concentration in blood can be
 ATTENTIO
!!! N

October 2022 3 Prof. Dr .Saad Merza Husain Alaraji

 ‫‪4‬‬

‫ماعلا ةيادب يف يئانبا مكب الهسوالها‬

‫هنس مكل اينمتم ديدجال يساردال‬
‫زيمتلا و قوفتالب ةئيلم هديعس هيسارد مكتايح‬
‫أللا و ةيصخشلا و ةيملعال‬ ‫يف ةيقفوملا و ق ت‬

‫‪Department of Medical Physiology‬‬

‫– ‪Faculty Of Medicine- University Of Babylon‬‬
‫‪drsaadalaraji@gmail.com IRAQ‬‬
‫‪med.saad.alaraji@uobabylon.edu.iq‬‬
 Endocrine System

Professor of Medical Physiology

Department of Medical Physiology
Faculty Of Medicine- University Of Babylon
ENDOCRINOLOGY
”Endo (Endon)- “within, inner Internal Secretion=
-crine (Krinen)- ”secrete =
ology- ”the study of“ =
October 2022 3 5
‫مت نيح‬ ‫ال ‪,‬ناسناال ةيهام لتأ‬
‫اهنكمي هيرقبع ةنكام الا‬
‫هدجت‬
‫الح‬‫ب ىقذ‬‫حوت‬‫ش رمخ لي‪.‬و ل‬ ‫زاير‬
‫اللكب‬‫رمح ا‬
‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah Hussein‬‬
 The Nobel Prize in •
Physiology or Medicine 2022
has not been awarded yet.
It will be announced on
Monday 3 October, 11:30
.CEST at the earliest

October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 7

Hussein
 Svante Pääbo has
been awarded the
2022 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or
Medicine for studying
our extinct
.ancestors' DNA

October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 8

Hussein
 9

The 2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly to David Julius (American
physiologist ) and Ardem Patapoutian (American molecular biologist, neuroscientist) for
.their discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch
Humans’ abilities to sense heat, cold, pressure and position are
.surroundingsour to reactingand perceivingforvital
10
chronic painfor treatingcriticalis worktheyhowUnderstanding
.and other conditions

The ability to sense heat, cold and touch is essential for survival and underpins our interaction
with the world around us. In our daily lives we take these sensations for granted, but how are
nerve impulses initiated so that temperature and pressure can be perceived? This question
.has been solved by this year’s Nobel Prize laureates
David Julius utilized capsaicin, a pungent compound from chili peppers that induces a
burning sensation, to identify a sensor in the nerve endings of the skin that responds to
heat. Ardem Patapoutian used pressure-sensitive cells to discover a novel class of
sensors that respond to mechanical stimuli in the skin and internal organs. These
breakthrough discoveries launched intense research activities leading to a rapid
increase in our understanding of how our nervous system senses heat, cold, and
mechanical stimuli. The laureates identified critical missing links in our understanding
. of the complex interplay between our senses and the environment
 11

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2020 was awarded jointly to 

Harvey J. Alter, Michael Houghton and Charles M. Rice "for the
".discovery of Hepatitis C virus
 12

Two Americans and a British scientist have been awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize for 
Physiology or Medicine for discovering how the body's cells sense and react to oxygen levels,
.work that has paved the way for new strategies to fight anemia, cancer and other diseases
 13
Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its 
.diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones
It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, 
growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, digestion,
respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and
.sensory perception caused by hormones

The endocrine system consists of several glands, all in different parts of

the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into
a duct system. Therefore, endocrine glands are regarded as ductless
glands. Hormones have many different functions and modes of action;
one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and,
conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one
.hormone
 14
History
Humoral Hypothesis (Hippocrates) 400 BC
Remote Antiquity 

Aristotle noted the physical and behavioral effects of castration on roosters •

Eunuchs guarded the women’s quarters of Hebrew kings and princes (Bible, Ester1:10) •
Results of pre-pubertal castration in humans: short stature, long arms, no facial hair or pubertal•
change in voice
Castrati
Once a common practice in Europe and Asia to castrate young boys with exceptional singing voices to•
prevent the pubertal changes in voice; prized in church choirs
Popularity reached a peak in 17th and 18 centuries •
First castrato opera star: Baldasarre Ferri (1610-1680) •
Only recorded castrato: Alessandro Moreschi (1858-1922) •
Last performing castrato died in the 20th century •
Castrati had the range of a soprano, but the greater development of the male lungs gave their singing•
. remarkable power
 15
William Harvey (1628) •
John Hunter (late 1600’s) •
Bordeau (1775) •
Claude Bernard (in 1872) noted the importance •
of a regulated internal environment (le milieu
intérieur) for the independence of animals in a
.changing, and challenging, environment
Communication among cells, tissues and •
organs in metazoans is essential for coordination
. of physiological activities
 16
Endocrine Replacement Therapy
Charles Brown-Séquard, a French physician, was the first to seriously•
.entertain the notion of replacement therapy
In 1889, at age 72, he injected himself with extracts of dog, guinea pig•
and rabbit testicles and proclaimed (in allegedly vivid language)
.remarkable rejuvenating effects
Since his preparations were aqueous extracts, it is believed that the•
.results were placebo effects

Von Mering and Menkoski

Removed the pancreas from dogs and noticed changes in urine and –
blood glucose
 17
The First Described Hormone (1902)
Sir William Bayliss (1860-1924)
Ernest Starling (1866-1927)
In response to the delivery to the intestine of •
acidic chyme from the stomach, endocrine cells
of the duodenum release secretin (an internal
.secretion) into the bloodstream
Secretin stimulates the exocrine pancreas to •
secrete bicarbonate into the intestine to
.neutralize the acid
 18

Hormone Structure, Synthesis and Assay

Frederick Sanger determined the structure of insulin•
(1958)
Vincent du Vigneaud synthesized polypeptide hormones•
(oxytocin and vasopressin) (1955)
Rosalyn Yalow developed radioimmunoassay for•
measurement of hormone concentrations (1977)
Katsoyannis synthesizes insulin (1963) •
 The leading textbooks on human physiology

19

Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah Hussein

Physiology is the study of normal function within •
living creatures. It is a sub-section of biology,
covering a range of topics that include organs,
anatomy, cells, biological compounds, and how
.they all interact to make life possible
From ancient theories to molecular laboratory •
techniques, physiological research has shaped
our understanding of the components of our
body, how they communicate, and how they
.keep us alive

October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 20

Hussein
The Locations Of The Major Endocrine Glands, And The
Hormones They Secrete

October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah Hussein 21

 Chemical
Agent
Messenger
s

October 2022 3 Prof. r. Saad Merzah Hussein 22

D
 :Chemical Agent Messengers.1
Hormones
Both the Endocrine System and the Nervous •
System are concerned with cell communication
and both use chemical agents as messengers. A
variety of chemical messengers are employed,
some of which can be categorized as hormones
Chemical messengers-secreted directly •
into the bloodstream
Bind to specific receptors associated •
with
target tissues
Have a characteristic half-life in the •
circulation
23
Secreted by well-vascularized
Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah HusseinOctober 2022 3
•
endocrine
Endocrine Glands :Glands of internal secretion OR
ductless glands secrete HORMONES

HORMONES :Are chemical substances •

secreted by endocrine glands into the
internal body fluids (blood) & has a
physiological control effect on other cells of
the body (It exerts its effects at very low
24
3 Oc tob er 202 2 Prof. Dr. Saad
c o n c e n trations)
No ducts .1
2.Highly vascular
3.Secret hormones
4.Distant targets

released by ductless glands .1 Like squeezing a sponge

)not pouring through a tube(
Chemical substances .2
3.very low concentrations
4.Not utilized by the target
cells 5.Act on specific
receptors
th3eOyctaobreer 2e0i2t2her .6 25
peptides ,Parm.ofiDn.reSsa odrMsertzearhoHiudssnei
 CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES

PROTEINS OR PEPTIDES •
HORMONES(3 or more a.a.)
DERIVATIVES OF (single AMINO •
ACID) TYROSIN
S3 OTctobEer 2R022OID HOProRf. Dr.MSaadOMerNzah • 26
Huss ein
 •modified amino acids, e.g..1
thyroxine, triiodothyronine,
epinephrine, and norepinephrine
(DERIVATIVES OF (single
AMINO
)ACID) TYROSIN;
•peptides, e.g. glucagon,.2
parathyroid hormone,
gonadotropin releasing hormone
(GnRH), thyrotropin releasing
hormone (TSH-RH) and
October 2022 3
corticotropin (ACTH)
Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah
Hussein
27
 proteins, e.g. growth .3 •
hormone (GH), luteinizing
hormone (LH), follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH),
. prolactin, and insulin
steroid hormones which are.4–
synthesized from
,cholesterol
,e.g. estrogens, progesterone
testosterone, aldosterone, and
. cortisol
October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 28
Hussein
 PROTEINS OR PEPTIDES HORMONES
HYDROPHILIC, DISSOLVED IN PLASMA •
RECEPTOR ON CELL SURFACE •
OR CALCIUM AS SECOND MESSENGERScAMP •
ACTIVATE SPECIFIC GENES TO INITIATE PROTEIN •
SYNTHESIS

HYPOTHALAMIC • GI •
PITUITARY • KIDNEY •
PANREATIC • LIVER • HORMONES
• HEART •
PARATHYROID
October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 29
Hussein
Classification of Hormones: Nonsteroid

:Nonsteroid hormones 
Water soluble 
Bind to receptors on 
target cell membranes
Faster action than 
steroid
,hormones 30
 Peptide/protein hormones
Secretory vesicles move to plasma •
membrane where they await a signal.
Then they are exocytosed and secreted
into blood stream
In some cases the prohormone is •
secreted and converted in the
extracellular fluid into the active
hormone: an example is angiotensin is
secreted by liver and converted into
active form by enzymes secreted by
October 2022 3
kidney and lung
Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 31
Hussein
 DERIVATIVES OF (single AMINO ACID) TYROSIN

ALL DERIVED FROM AMINO ACID TYROSINE •

UNIQUE SYNTHETIC AND SECRETORY PATHWAYS •

THYROID HORMONES •
CATECHOLAMINES •
October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 32
Hussein
 Thyroid Hormone
Thyroid hormones are basically tyrosine with 
.the critical incorporation of 3 or 4 iodine atoms
Thyroid hormone is produced by the
thyroid gland
Thyroid hormones are produced by modification 
of a tyrosine residue contained in thyroglobulin,
post-translationally modified to bind iodine,
then proteolytically cleaved and released as T4
and
T3. T3 and T4 then bind to thyroxin binding
globulin for transport
October 2022 3
in the
Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah
Hussein
blood 33
 Catecholamine hormones
Catecholamines are both 
.neurohormones and neurotransmitters
These include epinephrine, and
norepinephrine
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are 
produced by the adrenal medulla
both are water soluble
Secreted like peptide hormones 

October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 34

Hussein
 Amine Hormones
Two other amino acids are used •
: for synthesis of hormones
Tryptophan is the precursor to •
serotonin and the pineal
hormone melatonin
Glutamic acid is converted to •
October 2022 3
histamine
Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 35
Hussein
 STEROID HORMONES
LIPOPHILIC •
RECEPTOR IN CYTOPLASM •
ACTIVATE SPECIFIC •
GENES TO INITIATE
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

ADRENAL CORTICAL •
GONADAL • HORMONES
P •
3
NTA Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah
Hussein
36
 :Steroid Hormones 
Lipid soluble, chemically derived 
from cholesterol
Enter target cells 
Activate specific genes to 
produce specific
proteins
Slower acting than 
,nonsteroid hormones 37
 • Chemical Agent Messengers: Neurohormones.2
Neurohormones are
produced by specialized
neurons within the nervous
system that are capable of
synthesis and release of
hormones. These are
neurosecretory cells. They
receive information from
neural centers via ordinary
afferent fibers and respond
through the release of
October 2022 3
.neurohormones .
Prof. Dr. Saad Merza 38 h Hussein
The neurosecretory cells serve as links •
between the CNS and the endocrine
.system
They act as transducers by changing •
electrical signals into chemical
effectors. Such links are the only way
environmental cues such as visual,
olfactory, auditory, tactile, and thermal
stimuli can bring about adjustments in
the endocrine system. Examples of
neurohormones include oxytocin,
vasopressin and the hypophysiotrophic
39
hormones (releasingProf.hormones) of the
Dr. Saad Merzah HusseinOctober 2022 3
hypothalamus
 :Chemical Agent Messengers.3 •
Neurotransmitters
includes chemical agents released at pre- •
synaptic nerve endings which may be
cholinergic, adrenergic, and other types
. (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, etc)
Transmitters typically are released from
the pre-synaptic cell and travel across the
synapse to the post-synaptic cell or
effector cell. These substances diffuse
over very short distances and function
over very short periods of time and do not
depend on the general circulation for
distribution. They are promptly inactivated
by enzymes at the post-synaptic
October 2022 3 . 40
mr.
Prof. D
:Chemical Agent Messengers .4
Pheromones
The term pheromone originally was
applied to chemical sex
attractants &various kinds of agents
released by organisms into the
.environment
Phermones function to integrate
members of the population rather
.than cells within the same organism
Pheromones are not considered true
hormones since they are
generally
produced by exocrine glands
However, the capacity of the
exocrine glands to
produce
pheromones is often dependent on
. hormonal stimulation
Pheromones evoke specific
behavioral, developmental, or
reproductive responses in the
bodies of other individuals. They
are of great significance
surviv a l o f t h e s
P rof. Dr.
for
Saa d M er
the
zah Huss einOctober 2022 3
42
 HORMONES :do NOT initiate the reactions (like
enzymes) BUT regulate the reactions (Stimulation
OR Inhibition)
PH &PCO2 :Parahormones (High quantities are needed)

PHEROMONES: Are hormones secreted into

external environment used to communicate
.information(also used to attract opposite SEX)

When women live together for an extended period

(prisoner) their menstrual cycle begin to
SYNCHRONIZE (unless they are taking birth control
A fact that was counted on by the perfume pills)
3mOcabotnreu02f2a2 cturers thP
ra.o
ftD
rn. Saaamd M
eezrda
h Hiutsssen
i fragrance
 :Chemical Agent Messengers .5 •
Paracrine and Autocrine Factors
This is a catch-all category and •
includes a variety of chemical
messengers that fail in one or
more ways to satisfy the
.definition of the other types

October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 44

Hussein
 Products of dying or injured tissues, •
for example, histamines and
bradykinin, cause vasodilation and
participate in inflammatory
.processes
Cytokines and prostaglandins are
found in almost all tissues and elicit a
broad range of biological actions. They
usually are cleared from the
circulation in a single pass. They also
are paracrine/autocrine in nature. That
is, they act locally on neighboring
cells (paracrine) or on the cell that
October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 45
Hussein
Some agents can function as true hormones and •

as paracrine factors. For example, somatostatin

is produced in the hypothalamus and
regulates growth hormone release as a
, typical neurohormone. However
somatostatin is also produced by cells in
the Islets of Langerhans and acts as a
paracrine factor on neighboring cells that
produce insulin and glucagon. As we learn
more about paracrine and autocrine agents the
distinctions between them and hormones
becomes more and more blurred. In fact many of
today's endocrinologists consider growth factors
and cytokines as hormones even though many do
. not reach the circulation
October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 46
Hussein
Types of cell-to-cell
signaling endocrine hormones travel via
; bloodstream to target cells
neurohormones (neurocrine)are
released via synapses and travel
; via the bloodstream
paracrine hormones act on
adjacent cells and
autocrine hormones are released
and act on the cell that secreted
. them
Also, intracrine hormones act
within the cell that produces
.them
October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. 47 d Merzah Hussein
Saa
 Response vs. distance traveled
Endocrine action: the hormone is distributed in blood
. and binds to distant target cells
Paracrine action: the hormone acts locally by diffusing
. from its source to target cells in the neighborhood
Autocrine action: the hormone acts on the same cell that
. produced it

BLOOD

October 2022 3 48 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah Hussein

October 2022 3 49 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah Hussein
 PARACRINE SECRETIONS
Local hormones-diffuse only a short
distance to stimulate nearby cells
Paracrine secretions with standard
:hormones
somatostatin from pancreatic .a
cellsdiffuse only as far as  &  cells of
Islets to inhibit secretions

Catecholamines-diffuse into adrenal .b

cortex to stimulate corticosterone secretion

October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 50

Hussein
Thank You
October 2022 3 Prof. Dr. Saad Merzah 51
Hussein