 Modularity

 Extensibility
 Elegant syntax
FEATURES  Case sensitive

OF C  Less memory required

 The standard library concept
LANGUAGE  The portability of the compiler
 A powerful and varied range of operators
 Ready access to the hardware when needed
STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAM
Program
Documentation section
(Used for comments) 1 // Program for addition of 2 nos
4
Link section
5
6 void fun();
Definition section
7
8 int a=10;
Global declaration section 9
(Variables used in more than 10
one functions)
11 void main( )
void main () 12 {
{ 13 printf("Value of a inside main function: %d", a);
Declaration part 14 fun();
Executable part 15 }
}
16
Subprogram section 14 void fun()
(User defined functions) 18 {printf("Value of a inside fun function: %d", a);}
  A comment is an explanation or description of the source code
of the program
 It helps a programmer to explain logic of the code
and improves program readability.
 At run-time, a comment is ignored by the compiler.
 There are two types of comments in C:
 Single line comment
 Represented as // double forward slash
 It is used to denote a single line comment only.
COMMENTS  Example: // Single line comment
 Multi-line comment
 Represented as /* any_text */ start with forward
slash and asterisk (/*) and end with asterisk and
forward slash (*/).
 It is used to denote single as well as multi-line
comment.
 Example: /* multi line comment line -1
 multi line comment line -2 */
HEADER FILES
Header
Description
file
 A header file is a file with extension .h stdio.h Input/Output functions (printf and
which contains the set of predefined scanf)
standard library functions. conio.h Console Input/Output functions
(getch and clrscr)
 The “#include” preprocessing directive is
math.h Mathematics functions (pow, exp,
used to include the header files with sqrt etc…)
extension in the program.
string.h String functions (strlen, strcmp,
strcat etc…)
DATA TYPES
Data types are defined as the data storage format that a variable can store a data.
It determines the type and size of data associated with variables.

Data types in C

Primary Data type

Secondary Data type
(int, float, char)

Derived Data type User definer Data type

(array, pointer) (structure, union, enum)
PRIMARY DATA TYPE
• Primary data types are built in data types which are directly supported by machine.
• They are also known as fundamental data types.
• int:
• int datatype can store integer number which is whole number without fraction part
such as 10, 105 etc.
• C language has 3 classes of integer storage namely short int, int and long int. All of
these data types have signed and unsigned forms.
• Example: int a=10;
• float:
• float data type can store floating point number which represents a real number
with decimal point and fractional part such as 10.50, 155.25 etc.
• When the accuracy of the floating point number is insufficient, we can use the
double to define the number. The double is same as float but with longer precision.
• To extend the precision further we can use long double which consumes 80 bits of
memory space.
• Example: float a=10.50;
PRIMARY DATA TYPE (CONT…)
 char:
 Char data type can store single character of alphabet or digit or special symbol
such as ‘a’, ‘5’ etc.
 Each character is assigned some integer value which is known as ASCII values.
 Example: char a=‘a’;
 void:
 The void type has no value therefore we cannot declare it as variable as we did in
case of int or float or char.
 The void data type is used to indicate that function is not returning anything.
 SECONDARY DATA TYPE
• Secondary data types are not directly supported by the machine.
• It is combination of primary data types to handle real life data in more convenient way.
• It can be further divided in two categories,
• Derived data types: Derived data type is extension of primary data type. It is built-in system
and its structure cannot be changed. Examples: Array and Pointer.
• Array: An array is a fixed-size sequenced collection of elements of the same data type.
• Pointer: Pointer is a special variable which contains memory address of another variable.
• User defined data types: User defined data type can be created by programmer using
combination of primary data type and/or derived data type. Examples: Structure, Union, Enum.
• Structure: Structure is a collection of logically related data items of different data types
grouped together under a single name.
• Union: Union is like a structure, except that each element shares the common memory.
• Enum: Enum is used to assign names to integral constants, the names make a program easy
to read and maintain.
VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS
• Variable is a symbolic name given to some value which can
be changed.
• 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎, 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡, 𝑒𝑡𝑐. can be variable names.
• 𝑥=5 𝑎=𝑏+𝑐
• Constant is a fixed value which cannot be changed.
• 5, −7.5, 1452, 0, 3.14, 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
 T O K E N S

• The smallest individual unit of a program is known as token.

• C has the following tokens:
• Keywords
• C reserves a set of 32 words for its own use. These words are called keywords (or reserved words),
and each of these keywords has a special meaning within the C language.
• Identifiers
• Identifiers are names that are given to various user defined program elements, such as variable,
function and arrays.
• Constants
• Constants refer to fixed values that do not change during execution of program.
• Strings
• A string is a sequence of characters terminated with a null character \0.
• Special Symbols
• Symbols such as #, &, =, * are used in C for some specific function are called as special symbols.
• Operators
• An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform certain mathematical or logical operation.
 OPERATORS
• Arithmetic operators (+, - , *, /, %)
• Relational operators (<, <=, >, >=, ==, !=)
• Logical operators (&&, ||, !)
• Assignment operators (+=, -=, *=, /=)
• Increment and decrement operators (++, --)
• Conditional operators (?:)
• Bitwise operators (&, |, ^, <<, >>)
• Special operators ()
ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
Arithmetic operators are used for mathematical calculation.
Operator Meaning Example Description
+ Addition a+b Addition of a and b
- Subtraction a–b Subtraction of b from a
* Multiplication a*b Multiplication of a and b
/ Division a/b Division of a by b
% Modulo division- remainder a%b Modulo of a by b
RELATIONAL OPERATORS
Relational operators are used to compare two numbers and taking decisions based on their
relation.
Relational expressions are used in decision statements such as if, for, while, etc…
Operator Meaning Example Description
< Is less than a<b a is less than b
<= Is less than or equal to a <= b a is less than or equal to b
> Is greater than a>b a is greater than b
>= Is greater than or equal to a >= b a is greater than or equal to b
== Is equal to a=b a is equal to b
!= Is not equal to a != b a is not equal to b
LOGICAL OPERATORS
Logical operators are used to test more than one condition and make decisions.
Operator Meaning
&& logical AND (Both non zero then true, either is zero then false)
|| logical OR (Both zero then false, either is non zero then true)
! Is greater than

a b a&&b a||b
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS
Assignment operators (=) is used to assign the result of an expression to a variable.
Assignment operator stores a value in memory.
C also supports shorthand assignment operators which simplify operation with assignment.

Operator Meaning
= Assigns value of right side to left side
+= a += 1 is same as a = a + 1
-= a -= 1 is same as a = a - 1
*= a *= 1 is same as a = a * 1
/= a /= 1 is same as a = a / 1
%= a %= 1 is same as a = a % 1
INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS
Increment (++) operator used to increase the value of the variable by one.
Decrement (--) operator used to decrease the value of the variable by one.

Example Explanation
x=100; After the execution the
x++; value of x will be 101.

Example Explanation
x=100; After the execution the
x--; value of x will be 99.
INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS (CONT…)
Operator Description
Pre increment operator (++x) value of x is incremented before assigning it to the variable on the
left

Example Explanation Output

x=10; First increment value of x will be 11

p=++x; x by one then assign. p will be 11

Operator Description
Post increment operator (x++) value of x is incremented after assigning it to the variable on the
left

Example Explanation Output

x=10; First assign value of x x will be 11

p=x++; then increment value. p will be 10
CONDITIONAL OPERATORS
A ternary operator is known as conditional operator.
Syntax: exp1 ? exp2 : exp3
Working of the ? : Operator
exp1 is evaluated first
if exp1 is true(nonzero) then
- exp2 is evaluated and its value becomes the value of the expression
If exp1 is false(zero) then
- exp3 is evaluated and its value becomes the value of the expression

Example Example
m=2, n=3; m=2, n=3;
r=(m>n) ? m : n; r=(m<n) ? m : n;
Explanation Explanation
Value of r will be 3 Value of r will be 2
BITWISE OPERATORS
Bitwise operators are used to perform operation bit by bit.
Bitwise operators may not be applied to float or double.
Operator Meaning
& bitwise AND
| bitwise OR
^ bitwise exclusive OR
<< shift left (shift left means multiply by 2)
>> shift right (shift right means divide by 2)
BITWISE OPERATORS

8 = 1000 (In Binary) and 6 = 0110 (In Binary)

Example: Bitwise & (AND) Example: Bitwise | (OR)

int a=8, b=6, c; int a=8, b=6, c;
c = a & b; c = a | b;
printf("Output = %d", c); printf("Output = %d", c);
Output Output
0 14

Example: Bitwise << (Shift Left) Example: Bitwise >> (Shift Right)
int a=8, b; int a=8, b;
b = a << 1; b = a >> 1;
printf("Output = %d", b); printf("Output = %d", b);
Output Output
16 (multiplying a by a power of two) 4 (dividing a by a power of two)
SPECIAL OPERATORS
Operator Meaning
& Address operator, it is used to determine address of the variable.
* Pointer operator, it is used to declare pointer variable and to get value from it.
, Comma operator. It is used to link the related expressions together.
sizeof It returns the number of bytes the operand occupies.
. member selection operator, used in structure.
-> member selection operator, used in pointer to structure.
EXPRESSIONS
An expression is a combination of operators, constants and variables.
An expression may consist of one or more operands, and zero or more operators to produce
a value.

Operand 1 Operand 2 Operand 3

answer = a + b * c;

Variable to store Operator 1 Operand 2

the expression value
EVALUATION OF EXPRESSIONS
An expression is evaluated based on the operator precedence and associativity.
When there are multiple operators in an expression, they are evaluated according to their
precedence and associativity.
OPERATOR PRECEDENCE
Precedence of an operator is its priority in an expression for evaluation.
The operator with higher precedence is evaluated first and the operator with the least
precedence is evaluated last.
Operator precedence is why the expression 5 + 3 * 2 is calculated as 5 + (3 * 2), giving 11,
and not as (5 + 3) * 2, giving 16.
We say that the multiplication operator (*) has higher "precedence" or "priority" than the
addition operator (+), so the multiplication must be performed first.
OPERATOR ASSOCIATIVITY
Associativity is the left-to-right or right-to-left order for grouping operands to operators that
have the same precedence.
Operator associativity is why the expression 8 - 3 - 2 is calculated as (8 - 3) - 2, giving 3, and
not as 8 - (3 - 2), giving 7.
We say that the subtraction operator (-) is "left associative", so the left subtraction must be
performed first.
When we can't decide by operator precedence alone in which order to calculate an
expression, we must use associativity.
TYPE CONVERSION
Type conversion is converting one type of data to another type.
It is also known as Type Casting.
There are two types of type conversion:
Implicit Type Conversion
▪ This type of conversion is usually performed by the compiler when necessary without any commands by the
user.
▪ It is also called Automatic Type Conversion.
Explicit Type Conversion
▪ These conversions are done explicitly by users using the pre-defined functions.
Example: Implicit Type Conversion Example: Explicit Type Conversion
int a = 20; double a = 4.5, b = 4.6, c = 4.9;
double b = 20.5; int result = (int)da + (int)db + (int)dc;
printf("%lf", a + b); printf("result = %d", result);
Output Output
40.500000 12
  printf() is a function defined in stdio.h file
 It displays output on standard output, mostly
monitor
 Message and value of variable can be printed
 Let’s see few examples of printf
PRINTF()  printf(“ ”);
 printf(“Hello World”); // Hello World
 printf(“%d”, c); // 15
 printf(“Sum = %d”, c); // Sum = 15
 printf(“%d+%d=%d”, a, b, c); // 10+5=15
SCANF()
scanf() is a function defined in stdio.h file
scanf() function is used to read character, string, numeric data from keyboard
Syntax of scanf
scanf("%X", &variable);
▪ where %X is the format specifier which tells the compiler what type of data is in a variable.
▪ & refers to address of “variable” which is directing the input value to a address returned by &variable.

Format Supported Example Description

specifier data types
%d Integer scanf(“%d”, &a) Accept integer value such as 1, 5, 25, 105 etc
%f Float scanf(“%f”, &b) Accept floating value such as 1.5, 15.20 etc
%c Character scanf(“%c”, &c) Accept character value such as a, f, j, W, Z etc
%s String scanf(“%s”, &d) Accept string value such as diet, india etc
GETCHAR AND PUTCHAR
getchar function reads a single character from terminal.
putchar function displays the character passed to it on the screen. Program
1 #include <stdio.h>
2 void main( )
3{
4 int c;
5 printf("Enter a character: ");
6 /* Take a character as input */
7 c = getchar();
8 /* Display the character */
9 printf("Entered character is: ");
10 putchar(c);
11 }

Output
Enter a character: a
Entered character is: a
GETS AND PUTS
gets function reads a line from stdin into the buffer pointed to by s until either a terminating
newline or EOF (End of File) occurs.
puts function writes the string 's' and 'a' trailing newline to stdout.
Program
1 #include <stdio.h>
2 void main( )
3 {
4 /*Character array of length 100*/
5 char str[100];
6 printf("Enter a string: ");
7 /* Take a string as input */
8 gets( str );
9 /* Display the string */
10 printf("Entered string is: "); Output
11 puts( str ); Enter a string: india
12 } Entered string is: india
PREPROCESSOR
Preprocessors are programs that process our source code before compilation.
There are a number of steps involved between writing a program and executing a program in
C.
Let us have a look at these steps before we actually start learning about Preprocessors.

C Program

Object Executable
Are there No Code Code
preprocessor Compiler Linker
directive

Yes

Preprocessor perform action

  There are 4 main types of preprocessor

TYPES OF directives:
 Macros
PREPROCESS  File inclusion
OR  Conditional compilation
 Other directives
  A macro is a fragment of code which has been given a name.
Whenever the name is used in program, it is replaced by the
contents of the macro.
 Macro definitions are not variables and cannot be changed by

MACRO 
your program code like variables.
The ‘#define’ directive is used to define a macro.
 Do not put a semicolon ( ; ) at the end of #define statements.
 There are two types of macros:
 Object-like Macros
 Function-like Macros
MACRO
Description Object-like Macros Function-like Macros
Definition The object-like macro is an identifier that is The function-like macro looks like function
replaced by value. call.
Use It is used to represent numeric constants. It is used to represent function.
Syntax #define CNAME value #define CNAME (expression)
Example #define PI 3.14 #define MIN(a,b) ((a)<(b)?(a):(b))
Program 1 #include <stdio.h> 1 #include <stdio.h>
2 #define PI 3.14 2 #define MIN(a,b) ((a)<(b)?(a):(b))
3 void main() 3 void main()
4 { int r=2; 4 {
5 float a; 5 printf("%d", MIN(2, 5));
6 a=PI*r*r; 6 }
7 printf("%f", a);
8 }