MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING

19MECHANICAL

SUBJECT TEACHER: ENGR. QAMAR ABBAS QAZI

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT QUEST
NAWABSHAH

1
 MAINTENANCE
ENGINEERING(ME-408)
 Objectives: To give students a comprehensive
overview in the field of maintenance from the
management and technical point of view.

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 COURSE CONTENT:
Introduction to Maintenance and its types: Preventive
Maintenance, its objectives, benefits and economics, inspection
and implementation. Routine maintenance and monitoring of fault
indicators, proper assembly/disassembly, alignments aspects,
materials handling, record keeping and maintenance scheduling,
stocking spare parts and cost effectiveness, safety in maintenance.
Basic repairs of electro-mechanical equipment, fault diagnosis and
assessment. Introduction to predictive maintenance and condition
base monitoring.
 Recommended Text Books:
 Maintenance Engineering by L.R Higgins, l . C Morrow,
McGraw- Hill (Latest Edition)
 Plant Equipment and Maintenance engineering by Duncan C .
Richardson. 3
 MAINTENANCE
ENGINEERING
 Describe Maintenance and Maintenance
engineering, objectives and the basic principles in
maintenance.
 Explain Maintenance Policies and Preventive
Maintenance.
 Illustrate the various processes involved in condition-
Based monitoring.
 Explain the influence of failure analysis in basic machine
elements.
 Explain the role of Repair Methods for Material.

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 Basic Principles of maintenance planning.
 Objectives and principles of planned maintenance
activity.
 Importance and benefits of sound Maintenance systems.
 Reliability and Machine availability.
 MTBF, MTTR and MTTF for incident management KPI.
 Factors of availability.
 Maintenance organization.
 Maintenance economics.
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Maintenance engineering :
Maintenance engineering
is the activity of applying engineering concepts to the
optimization of equipment, procedures, and
departmental budgets to achieve better maintainability,
reliability and availability of equipment(RAM).

Maintenance division of the factory ensure availability

of machines and equipment to perform at optimum
conditions.
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 OR
Maintenance engineering is a specialist area of engineering
concerned with the optimization, servicing and repair of
equipment to provide continued availability and reliability.

Maintenance engineering requires a broad skill set as it can

encompass complex fault finding across a spectrum of
systems including mechanical , electrical and fluid power, as
well as preventive maintenance and optimization procedures.
In effect, the aim of maintenance engineering is to keep plant
running as efficiently as possible with as few breakdowns as
possible. Maintenance is growing in importance as
technology plays a greater role in the production.

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 To achieve minimum breakdown ,keep the plant in
excellent condition at the lowest possible cost ,also
should run without any interruption in system
product.
 Planning: Planning ensures the smooth operation
of the system. Planning defines what is to be done
and how it is to be done. It specifies the materials,
tool, equipment and skills required to perform the
work without interruption of products.
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9
Main classification of planning in engineering system are as
follows,
1. Long range planning,
2. Short range planning,
3. Planning for immediate activity,
[Link] Range planning : For a period of five years at least.
Involves capital budgeting, strategies and operational
programmers.
2. Short range: up to one year. Made to achieve short term
goals.
3. Immediate Activity Planning : it is done frequently
whenever required.

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 Main types of maintenance
engineering

 Corrective or break down Maintenance.

 Schedule Maintenance (Shutdown Maintenance).
 Preventative Maintenance.
 Predictive Maintenance(Condition-based URL
Monitoring ).

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Corrective or Break down Maintenance

It is defined as repair after equipment is out of order and

cannot perform at more function cause (poor
maintenance) excessive delay in production, more spoilt
materials and profit loss.

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 Schedule Maintenance
In schedule maintenance inspect the equipment early(Make

necessary action) for avoiding breakdown. Schedule

maintenance is any repair and service work performed within

a set timeframe. It details when given maintenance task are

performed by maintenance engineer. Schedule maintenance

may occur at repeating intervals or in response to work

request.
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 Preventive Maintenance
It needs to locate at weak spots like Bearings, parts under
vibration and pressure vessel. It used as regular inspection
and minimum repair reducing the danger of break
down(periodic inspection of components). Periodic
inspection correct them in the minor stage to make the
plant equipment always ready and achieve maximum
production.

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 Predictive Maintenance
Predictive maintenance is the type of condition-based
maintenance that monitor the condition of assets through
sensor devices like Audio gauge, vibration analyzer,
Amplitude meter, Thermometer and pressure gauge through
which equipment conditions measured periodically to take
timely action such as equipment adjustment, repair or
overhaul(renovation). Predictive maintenance increases the
life time of equipment.
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 MAINTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE
ENGINEERING OBJECTIVES
Even though maintenance engineering and maintenance have
the same end objective or goal (i.e., mission-ready
equipment/item at minimum cost). In contrast, maintenance is
a function that must be performed under normally adverse
circumstances and stress, and its main objective is to rapidly
restore the equipment to its operational readiness state using
available resources.
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MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING OBJECTIVES:
• Improve maintenance operations.
•Reduce the amount expenses (during failure) and
frequency of maintenance( number of maintenance
actions carried out per unit time.
•Reduce the effect of complexity(Technical and managerial
aspect of maintenance project).
• Reduce the maintenance skills required.
• Reduce the amount of supply support.
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•Establish optimum frequency and extent of preventive
maintenance to be carried out.
•Improve and ensure maximum utilization of
maintenance facilities.
•Improve the maintenance organization.

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 MAINTENANCE TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS
This section presents some terms and definitions directly or indirectly
used in engineering maintenance:
 Maintenance: All actions appropriate for retaining an
item/part/equipment in, or restoring it to, a given condition.
 Maintenance engineering: The activity of equipment/item
maintenance that develops concepts, criteria, and technical
requirements in conceptional and acquisition phases to be used
and maintained in a current status during the operating phase to
assure effective maintenance support of equipment. 19
Preventive maintenance: All actions carried out on a planned,
periodic, and specific schedule to keep an item/equipment in stated
working condition through the process of checking and
reconditioning. These actions are precautionary steps undertaken to
forestall or lower the probability of failures or an unacceptable level
of degradation in later service, rather than correcting them after they
occur.
• Corrective maintenance: The unscheduled maintenance or repair
to return items/equipment to a defined state and carried out
because maintenance persons or users perceived deficiencies or
failures.
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• Predictive maintenance: The use of modern measurement and
signal processing methods to accurately diagnose item/equipment
condition during operation.
• Maintenance concept: A statement of the overall concept of the
item/product specification or policy that controls the type of
maintenance action to be employed for the item under
consideration.
• Maintenance plan: A document that outlines the management and
technical procedure to be employed to maintain an item; usually
describes facilities, tools, schedules, and resources.

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• Reliability: The probability that an item will perform its stated
function satisfactorily for the desired period when used as per the
specified conditions.
• Maintainability: The probability that a failed item will be restored
to adequately working condition.
• Active repair time: The component of downtime when repair
persons are active to effect a repair.
• Mean time to repair(Restore)(MTTR): It is depending on item
maintainability equal to the item repair time. Mean time to repair is
the average time it taken to repair a system once the failure is
discovered. It is calculated by adding the total time spent repairing
and dividing that by the number of repairs. 22
 MTTR = Total time spent repairing / no: of repairs
Foe example three items are under maintenance of any machine and
required different time to restore their original position than mean
time to repair will be calculated, if each item get 6 minutes, 13
minutes and 15 minutes. Now all spent repaired time of each item
add and divided by no: of items.
6+13+15/3 = 11.3 minutes MTTR

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• Mean Time To Failure(MTTF): Mean Time To Failure (MTTF) is a
very basic measure of reliability used for non-repairable systems just
like spinning disc drive. It represents the length of time(Lifespan)
that an item is expected to last in operation until it fails.
MTTF = Total hours of operation / Total number of units

• Mean Time Between Failures(MTBF): The term MTBF is used for

repairable systems, but it does not take into account units that are
shut down for routine scheduled maintenance but only repair
time.
MTBF = Total operational Time / Total number of Failure 24
• Overhauling: A comprehensive inspection and restoration of an
item or a piece of equipment to an acceptable level at a durability
time or usage limit.
• Quality: The degree to which an item, function, or process satisfies
requirements of customer and user.
• Maintenance person: An individual who conducts preventive
maintenance and responds to a user’s service call to a repair facility,
and performs corrective maintenance on an item. Also called custom
engineer, service person, technician, field engineer, mechanic, repair
person, etc.
• Inspection: The qualitative observation of an item’s performance or
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condition.
• KPI in Maintenance Engineering: Key performance indicators
measure the performance of a person, department, project or
company over time and how effective they are at achieving their
aims. The main aim or goal of KPI to reduction downtime and cutting
costs (overall budget)
It also evaluate factors critical to an organization's success.
Five KPI for Maintenance:
 Unscheduled downtime
 Reactive maintenance work hours
 Maintenance backlog (Maintenance work approved but not yet done) & cost
 MTBF for selecting preventive maintenance time
 work order cycle time (Order fulfilling processes time) for customer's
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satisfaction.
 Mechanical Equipments Maintenance
 Stationary Equipments (Integrity Maintenance):
 Rotary Equipments (Reliability maintenance):
Stationary equipment is a general classification of mechanical equipment
that does not move. Stationary equipment refers to machinery or
equipment that remains fixed in place during operation and is not designed
to be moved from one location to another. This type of equipment is
commonly used in various industries, including manufacturing, construction,
and energy sector . They may also require various types of maintenance,
such as regular inspections, cleaning, and replacement of parts or
components.
 Fastener
 Filtration
 Furnace
 Gasket
 Pipes , Pipes fitting and flanges
 Pressure vessel and Storage tank 27
 Valves
Fastener: The primary function a fastener is to join two or more
components together. They are used in a variety of applications, such as in
construction, aerospace, automotive, and electronics. Fasteners also ensure
the safety and integrity of structures, as they prevent any unwanted movement
or separation of parts.
Filtration : A mechanical process to separate solids from liquid or gas. This can
be accomplished by gravity or vacuum, where the solids pass through a
medium letting only the liquid or gas through. The finer the medium, the
cleaner the result. Filtration is the first part of the process. The second is the
collection of the separated material, which can either be disposed of or used
for another purpose.
Furnace : A furnace is a piece of equipment that provides direct electric or
fired heat for industrial processes that require high temperatures. Many
industrial processes require heating for the preparation of materials for
production or the completion of an application. The dependability and
durability of electric and fired industrial furnaces provide the necessary
temperature control to complete a manufacturing process or operation.
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Gasket : A material that is used to seal the face of flanges, valves and equipment.
Gaskets can be made from materials that are soft or hard, but will compress to
make a tight seal. When compressed between two flange faces it will deform to
match the surface grooves and irregularities. A gasket must be installed properly to
prevent leakage. The surface of the flange must be clear of all foreign bodies such
as dust, dirt or grease that could prevent a proper seal. To ensure a seal
throughout the life of the gasket, sufficient pressure or stress should be maintained
to prevent leakage. It is very important to select the right gasket material to be
used.
Pipe : Pipe is a hollow tube that can carry products such as fluid, gas, granular
and more. Pipe is identified by nominal pipe size and the wall thickness identified
by schedule number.
Pipe Fitting : Fitting is a piping component that is used to join piping, change the
direction or diameter of piping or end the pipe. They are a versatile piping
component which are necessary in modern piping system.
Pipe Flange : A bolted connection where two pieces of pipe, equipment, fittings
or valves are connected together to form a piping system. Flanges provide access
for when equipment (or piping) needs to be cleaned, inspected or reconfigured.
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Pressure Vessel: Designed to hold or contain process fluids, liquids or gas, at a
pressure significantly higher or lower than the ambient pressure, either internally or
externally. Each pressure vessel must be operated within its design temperature and
pressure, which is the vessel's safety limits. These vessels serve many functions.
They can used for storage of high pressure gas, gas scrubbers, two and three phase
separators and other functions. They can have various internals depending on the
process. Two phase separators may have a wave breaker, vortex breaker, mist
eliminator and splash plate. Three phase separators will typically contain a the same
components with the addition of a weir to help ensure separation.
Storage Tank : Storage tanks are used to store volumes of fluids for storage or as
part of a process. There are various types of materials used to manufacture the
tanks. The fundamental materials to build storage tanks vary depending on the type
of material that you store. Suppose your factory or manufacturing unit requires the
storing of bulk chemical substances or fluids at various stages of the refinery process.
In that case, you need to avoid potential hazards and losses. Storage tanks come in a
number of shapes and sizes.
Valves : A mechanism used to stop or open and regulate flow. The type of valve
used depends on the application. In general, there are valves used for on-off (open-
closed) applications, and throttling valves which can adjust flow. All valves fall into
two basic types: stop valves and check valves.
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Rotating Equipment(Reliability Maintenance):
Rotating equipment is a general classification of mechanical equipment that
simply moves products, gasses, liquids and solids through the system. This
is broken down further into four subcategories, auxiliary equipment, driven
equipment, prime mover and transmission devices in which each of the
equipment types will fall into. Examples of rotating equipment include
pumps, compressors, turbines, engines, and motors. Rotating
equipment is commonly used in various industries, including oil and gas,
power generation, manufacturing, and transportation. Regular maintenance
and inspections are essential for keeping rotating equipment operating
safely and efficiently. This includes tasks such as lubrication, alignment, and
vibration analysis, which can help prevent equipment failures and prolong
the lifespan of the equipment. Proper training of operators and
maintenance personnel is also important to ensure that the equipment is
operated and maintained correctly.

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Bearing: Bearing is a equipment which used in all industrial machineries for
smooth rotational movements. However, to achieve reliability, they must be
maintained and handled correctly. This can either be done manually, or with the
help of an automatic lubrication system. Either way, this will ensure a long bearing
service life, preventing many common issues that can result in bearing failure and
costly downtime. Let's dive into ten top tips for optimal bearing care.
 Handle and store correctly (Avoid from contaminated materials and wrapping removing)
 Use specialist tools ( Bearing puller and induction heaters for proper installation onto a shaft)
 Check the bearing housing and shaft (cleaning the shaft and housing before shaft fitting)
 Mount correctly (apply pressure for fits using in rings of bearings, loose ,tight and transient)
 Get your lubrication right (too high or too low and proper direction lubrication used)
 Avoid temperatures outside the bearing’s range (focus on discoloration of rings, cages )due to T.
 Where possible, prevent corrosion
 Choose your replacement carefully ( use superior bearing when replace an old one)
 Monitoring (Temperature smell, vibration and noise )
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 Call in the experts (special expert for bearing if complexity during installing)
 Objectives of Planned Maintenance Activity
 To achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in
good working condition at the lowest possible cost.
 To ensure the availability of machines and services in an
optimum working condition.
 To keep machines and other facilities in a condition to
be used to achieve the maximum profit without any
interruption.

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 To keep the time schedule of delivery to customers.
 To meet the availability requirements for critical
equipment.
 To keep the maintenance costs as low as possible for non-
critical equipment.
 To control the effective execution and trained supervision.
 To meet the quality requirements of the product.
 To increase the profits of production systems.

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Principles of Maintenance :They are followed in a system to

guide the staff to work efficiently and effectively to achieve the

overall objectives of the maintenance system, Main areas of

work governed by this principles are:

 Plant management in Maintenance work.

 Production and maintenance objectives.

 Establishment of work order and recording system.

 Information based Decision making.

 Adherence to planned maintenance strategy . 35

 Planning for maintenance functions.
 Role of Spare parts.
 Training.
 Maximum productivity results when each involved person in
an organization has a defined task to perform in a definitive
way and a definite time.
 Schedule control points effectively.

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 Measurement comes before control.
 The customer service relationship is the basis of an
effective maintenance organization.
 Job control depends on definite, individual responsibility
for each activity during the life span of a work order.
 The optimal crew(An organized group of workman) size is
the minimum number that can perform an assigned task
effectively.

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 Maintenance Management

Maintenance management involves keeping track(Fully

aware) of assets and parts. The purpose is to ensure that
production proceeds efficiently and the minimum amount
of resources are wasted. This is generally accomplished by
a tailored combination of software, practices, and
personnel that focus on
achieving these goals.

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 ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE MAINTENANCE
MANAGEMENT
There are many elements of effective maintenance management
whose effectiveness is the key to the overall success of the
maintenance activity. Many of these elements are described below:
1, Maintenance Policy: A maintenance policy is essential for
continuity of operations and a clear understanding of the
maintenance management program(Supervision) to guidance the
staff for carrying out the organizations maintenance strategies, plan
and activities.
2, Materials Control: Past experience indicates that, on average,
material costs account for approximately 30 to 40% of total direct
maintenance costs. It is process of systematically controlling
materials over the stage of procurement, storage and usage so as to
help maintain the regular flow of materials in production pipeline
by coordination to each-other.
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WORK ORDER SYSTEM:
A work order authorizes and directs an individual or a group to
perform a given task. A well-defined work order system should
cover all the maintenance jobs requested and accomplished,
whether repetitive or one-time jobs. The work order system is
useful for management in controlling costs and evaluating job
performance. Although the type and size of the work order can vary
from one maintenance organization to another, a work order should
at least contain information such as requested and planned
completion dates, work description and its reasons, planned start
date, labor and material costs, item or items to be affected, work
category (preventive maintenance, repair, installation, etc.), and
appropriate approval signatures.

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41
 EQUIPMENT RECORDS(Record Keeping)
Equipment records play a critical role in effectiveness and efficiency
of the maintenance organization. Usually, equipment records are
grouped under four classifications: maintenance work performed,
maintenance cost, inventory, and files. The maintenance work
performed category contains chronological documentation of all
repairs and preventive maintenance (PM) performed during the
item’s service life to date. The maintenance cost category contains
historical profiles and accumulations of labor and material costs by
item. Usually, information on inventory is provided by the stores or
accounting department.
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The inventory category contains information such as property
number, size and type, procurement cost, date manufactured or
acquired, manufacturer, and location of the equipment/item. The
files category includes operating and service manuals, warranties,
drawings, and so on. Equipment records are useful when
procuring new items/equipment to determine operating
performance trends, troubleshooting breakdowns, making
replacement or modification decisions, investigating incidents,
identifying areas of concern, performing reliability and
maintainability studies, and conducting life cycle cost and design
studies. 43
SOUND MAINTENANCE SYSTEM: To maintain a competitive
place in the market, it is critical for an advanced
manufacturing company to have a sound maintenance
management system, which can control its maintenance costs
at the lowest level and maintain its overall equipment
effectiveness at the highest level.
The following are the benefits of sound maintenance
management system.

 Minimization of down time.

 Improvement in availability of system.
 Extended life of equipment.
 Safety and smooth operation of the process.
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 Providing adequate back up supply.
 Minimization of normal expected wear and tear of
equipment.
 Safety of the personal involved in the organization.
 Increasing the reliability of the system.
 Providing a proper working environment.
 Cost effective maintenance boosts the profit of the
production system.

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Equipment lifecycle: Reliability engineering is dependability in the life
cycle management of product. The term “equipment lifecycle”
describes the lifespan or longevity of a physical asset, including
equipment and machinery. Equipment lifecycle is an important factor
in productivity and throughput because the longer a piece of
equipment can be used effectively, the better its return on
investment. The failure pattern of equipment over its life cycle can be
represented as bath-tub curve. A bathtub curve is a visual
representation of the failure rate of a product or group of products
over time. By plotting the occurrences of failure over time, a bathtub
curve maps out three periods that an asset experiences within its
lifetime: Infant mortality failure period. Normal life period.
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47
 Maintenance Management
and Control
The management and control of maintenance activities are
equally important to performing maintenance. Maintenance
management may be described as the function of providing
policy guidance for maintenance activities, in addition to
exercising technical and management control of maintenance
programs. Generally, as the size of the maintenance activity
and group increases, the need for better management and
control become essential.
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In the past, the typical size of a maintenance group in a
manufacturing establishment varied from 5 to 10% of the operating
force. Today, the proportional size of the maintenance effort
compared to the operating group has increased significantly, and this
increase is expected to continue. The prime factor behind this trend
is the tendency in industry to increase the mechanization and
automation of many processes. Consequently, this means lesser need
for operators but greater requirement for maintenance personnel.
There are many areas of maintenance management and control. This
chapter presents some of the important ones.

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 MAINTENANCE DEPARTMENT FUNCTIONS
AND ORGANIZATION
A maintenance department is expected to perform a wide range of
functions including:
 Planning and repairing equipment/facilities to acceptable
standards.
 Performing preventive maintenance; more specifically,
developing and implementing a regularly scheduled work program
for the purpose of maintaining satisfactory equipment/facility
operation as well as preventing major problems.
 Preparing realistic budgets that detail maintenance personnel and
material needs.
 Managing inventory to ensure that parts/materials necessary to
conduct maintenance tasks are readily available.
 Keeping records on equipment, services, etc.
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 Developing effective approaches to monitor the activities of

maintenance staff.
 Developing effective techniques for keeping operations personnel,
upper-level management, and other concerned groups aware of
maintenance activities.
 Training maintenance staff and other concerned individuals to
improve their skills and perform effectively.
 Reviewing plans for new facilities, installation of new equipment,
etc.
 Implementing methods to improve workplace safety and
developing safety education-related programs for maintenance
staff. 51
Centralized vs Decentralized maintenance

 centralized maintenance serves well in small- and

medium-sized enterprises housed in one structure.
 In the case of decentralized maintenance, a
maintenance group is assigned to a particular area or
unit. Some important reasons for the decentralized
maintenance are to reduce travel time to and from
maintenance jobs.

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Some of the benefits and drawbacks of centralized maintenance are
as follows:
Benefits
• More efficient compared to decentralized maintenance
• Fewer maintenance personnel required
• More effective line supervision
• Greater use of special equipment and specialized maintenance
persons
• Permits procurement of more modern facilities
• Generally allows more effective on-the-job training
Drawbacks
• Requires more time getting to and from the work area or job
• No one individual becomes totally familiar with complex hardware
or equipment
• More difficult supervision because of remoteness of maintenance
site from
the centralized headquarters
• Higher transportation cost due to remote maintenance work 53
MAINTENANCE PROJECT CONTROL METHODS:
In maintenance and other projects three important factors of
concern are time, cost, and resource availability. CPM and
PERT(Program evaluation and review techniques) deal with these
factors individually and also in combination.
PERT and CPM are similar. The major difference between the two is
that when the completion times of activities of the project are
uncertain PERT is used and with the certainty of completion times,
CPM is employed.
The following steps are involved with PERT and CPM:
• Break a project into individual jobs or tasks.
• Arrange these jobs/tasks into a logical network.
• Determine duration time of each job/task.
• Develop a schedule.
• Identify jobs/tasks that control the completion of project.
• Redistribute resources or funds to improve schedule
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The following sections present a formula to estimate activity expected
duration times and CPM in detail.
ACTIVITY EXPECTED DURATION TIME ESTIMATION:
The PERT scheme calls for three estimates of activity duration time
using the following formula to calculate the final time:

OT + 4(MT )+ PT
Ta -------------------------------……………………………(3.1)
6
where
Ta = activity expected duration time,
OT = optimistic or minimum time an activity will require for
completion,
PT = pessimistic or maximum time an activity will require for
completion,
MT = most likely time an activity will require for completion. This is the
time used for CPM activities.
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Example 3.1
Assume that we have the following time estimates to accomplish an
activity:
• OT = 55 days
• PT = 80 days
• MT = 60 days
Calculate the activity expected duration time

Substituting the given date in equation

55 + 4 (60 ) + 80
Ta = --------------------------- = 62.5
6

The expected duration time for the activity is 62.5 days

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BACKLOG CONTROL AND PRIORITY SYSTEM:

The amount of backlog within a maintenance organization is one of

the determining factors of maintenance management effectiveness.
Identification of backlogs is important to balance manpower and
workload requirements. Furthermore, decisions concerning
overtime, hiring, subcontracting, shop assignments, etc., are largely
based on backlog information. Management makes use of various
indices to make backlog related decisions.

The determination of job priority in a maintenance organization is

necessary since it is not possible to start every job the day it is
requested. In assigning job priorities, it is important to consider
factors such as importance of the item or system, the type of
maintenance, required due dates, and the length of time the job
awaiting scheduling will take.
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 JOB PLANNING AND SCHEDULING:
 Job planning is an essential element of the effective maintenance
management. A number of tasks may have to be performed prior
to commencement of a maintenance job; for example,
procurement of parts, tools, and materials, coordination and
delivery parts, tools, and materials, identification of methods and
sequencing, coordination with other departments, and securing
safety permits.
 Maintenance scheduling is as important as job planning. Schedule
effectiveness is based on the reliability of the planning function.

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PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT:

Successful maintenance organizations regularly measure their

performance through various means. Performance analyses
contribute to maintenance department efficiency and are essential to
revealing (informative) the downtime of equipment, peculiarities
(unusual characteristics) in operational behavior of the concerned
organization, developing plans for future maintenance, and so on.
Various types of performance indices for use by the maintenance
management are discussed later in this chapter.

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 FAULT DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS SYSTEM(CMMS):
Fault detection and diagnostics (FDD) is the process of identifying
and analyzing malfunctions or failures within Machinery
equipments to detect and diagnose faults as early as possible.
Early detection minimizes the impacts of downtimes, prevents
future failures, and improves overall system performance. Fault
Detection and Diagnostics in the context of equipment
maintenance is to optimize maintenance costs while still
improving the reliability, availability, maintainability and safety (
RAMS) of the equipment.

 Technique used to detect fault diagnosis in equipment

maintenance: Vibration-based diagnostics is the best method for
fault diagnosis, but needs expensive accelerometers and
associated wiring.” Noise monitoring, torque analysis,

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Key elements of the fault detection and diagnostics system:
The FDD, as the name implies, contains the detection and diagnosis
of equipment failures. The diagnosis of the failure can be broken
down into failure isolation and identification.
 FAULT DETECTION: Fault detection is the process of discovering
the presence of a fault in any equipment before it manifests itself in
the form of a breakdown.
Model-based fault detection: It is carried out through
mathematical modeling of signals and processes.
Knowledge-based fault detection: It is a method that leverages
historical data on equipment performance.

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FAULT ISOLATION: An important aspect of fault isolation is that the
fault has to be located at the lowest component that can be
replaced. This is done to improve the accuracy of isolation and
reduce the impact of downtime.
FAULT IDENTIFICATION: The purpose of fault identification is to
understand the underlying failure mode, determine the size of the
fault, and find its root cause. Fault diagnosis methods may differ,
but the steps to follow are generally the same.
FAULT EVALUATION: Once the failure modes and the associated
root causes are identified, the next step is to evaluate the impact of
that fault type on the overall performance of the system.

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Optimizing maintenance with FDD:
In short, fault detection and diagnostics play a decisive role in
optimizing the maintenance regime for any piece of equipment,
across its lifecycle.
With the advent of fast computing technologies, big data processing,
and advanced learning algorithms, traditional fault detection has
evolved into automatic fault management systems that not only
detect faults, but also identify the root cause and implement
corrective actions to avoid future recurrence.
Such automation of a series of manual processes has enabled
reliability and maintenance engineers to apply predictions on
equipment health, derive future equipment performance, and shape
optimal maintenance intervals.

63
Preventive maintenance (PM): It is an important component of a
maintenance activity. Within a maintenance organization it usually accounts for
a major proportion of the total maintenance effort. PM may be described as the
care and servicing by individuals involved with maintenance to keep
equipment/facilities in satisfactory operational state by providing for systematic
inspection, detection, and correction of incipient failures either prior to their
occurrence or prior to their development into major failure.

64
1. Inspection: Periodically inspecting materials/items to determine their
serviceability by comparing their physical, electrical, mechanical, etc.,
characteristics (as applicable) to expected standards.
2. Servicing: Cleaning, lubricating, charging, preservation, etc., of
items/materials periodically to prevent the occurrence of incipient failures.
3. Calibration: Periodically determining the value of characteristics of an item
by comparison to a standard; it consists of the comparison of two instruments,
one of which is certified standard with known accuracy, to detect and adjust any
discrepancy in the accuracy of the material/parameter being compared to the
established standard value.
4. Testing: Periodically testing or checking out to determine serviceability and
detect electrical/mechanical-related degradation.
5. Alignment: Making changes to an item’s specified variable elements for the
purpose of achieving optimum performance.
6. Adjustment: Periodically adjusting specified variable elements of material
for the purpose of achieving the optimum system performance.
7. Installation: Periodic replacement of limited-life items or the items
experiencing time cycle or wear degradation, to maintain the specified system
tolerance.
65
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE:
The repair or corrective maintenance is an important component of maintenance
activity. Corrective maintenance may be defined as the remedial action carried
out due to failure or deficiencies discovered during preventive maintenance, to
repair an equipment/item to its operational state. Usually, corrective
maintenance is an unscheduled maintenance action, basically composed of
unpredictable maintenance needs that cannot be preplanned or programmed on
the basis of occurrence at a particular time.

66
1. Fail-repair: The failed item is restored to its operational state.
2. Salvage: This element of corrective maintenance is concerned with disposal
of nonrepairable material and use of salvaged material from nonrepairable
equipment/item in the repair, overhaul, or rebuild programs.
3. Rebuild: This is concerned with restoring an item to a standard as close as
possible to original state in performance, life expectancy, and appearance. This
is achieved through complete disassembly, examination of all components,
repair and replacement of worn/unserviceable parts as per original specifications
and manufacturing tolerances, and reassembly and testing to original production
guidelines.
4. Overhaul: Restoring an item to its total serviceable state as per maintenance
serviceability standards, using the “inspect and repair only as appropriate”
approach.
5. Servicing: Servicing may be needed because of the corrective maintenance
action, for example, engine repair can lead to crankcase refill, welding on, etc.
Another example could be that the replacement of an air bottle may require
system recharging.

67
Reliability Centered Maintenance:
Reliability centered maintenance (RCM) is a systematic process used to
determine what has to be accomplished to ensure that any physical facility is able
to continuously meet its designed functions in its current operating context. RCM
leads to a maintenance program that focuses preventive maintenance (PM) on
specific failure modes likely to occur. Any organization can benefit from RCM if
its breakdowns account for more than 20 to 25% of the total maintenance
workload.

68
Quality and Safety in Maintenance:
Quality may be defined as conformance to requirements or degree to
which a product, function, or process satisfies the needs of customers
and users. Maintenance quality assurance is the actions by which it is
determined that parts, equipment, or material maintained, modified,
rebuilt, overhauled, or reclaimed conform to the specified
requirements. Maintenance quality is important because it provides a
degree of confidence that maintained or repaired
parts/equipment/systems will operate reliably and safely.

69
In the United States, there is a fatal work-related injury every 103
minutes and a disabling injury every 8 seconds. In 1998 the total cost
of worker injuries were in the order of $125.1 billion. Furthermore,
unintentional injuries are the fifth leading cause of death, with an
estimated cost of $480.5 billion per year. Accidents occurring during
maintenance work or concerning maintenance are frequent. For
example, in 1994, 13.61% of all accidents in the U.S. mining
industry occurred during maintenance work and, since 1990, the
occurrence of such accidents has increased each year. It is essential
that maintenance engineering should strive to eliminate or control
potential safety hazards to ensure satisfactory protection to people
and material from such things as electrical shock, high noise levels,
fire and radiation sources, toxic gas sources, protruding structural
members, and moving mechanical assemblies.

70
MAINTENANCE WORK QUALITY
Good quality maintenance work leads to good results: reduction or
elimination of unexpected failures, lower costs, better safety, increased
confidence in work performed, etc.
• Limit perplexity. Often the request for maintenance is incomplete and
inaccurate. Ensure the work’s proper completeness and accuracy prior to
taking concrete (practical) steps.
• Define goals. Goals should be set by the maintenance team and its
supervisors. Ensure that the team clearly understands the objectives for the
maintenance work prior to its start.
• Avoid unsafe practices. Do not permit temptation (provoke) to minimize
maintenance time by short-cutting prescribed safety procedures.
• Do not overlook secondary damage. Ensure that less dramatic secondary
problems are not overlooked. Otherwise, they could be costly at a later
stage.
• Report as the maintenance work progresses. Report all relevant
information that could be useful for performing similar tasks in future.
• Do not use second-hand parts. Ensure that failed parts are not replaced
with second-hand parts. 71
• Reinstall with extra care. Due to various factors, the condition of some
equipment/system parts or materials may deteriorate with time; thus
when new or repaired parts/materials are reinstalled, excessive force can
damage other parts. Avoid introducing new failures while correcting the
old ones.
• Follow a system approach to box up. There is tendency to close up
quickly after finishing a repair. After the repair, it is important to
consider the following factors:
• Check for safety. Ensure that all hot-keys are returned to appropriate
places and involved persons accounted for.
• Check for all repair tools/equipment used. Do not restart in the event of
missing items.
• Test the repaired item prior to its hand-back.
• Complete all appropriate job records. Tasks such as equipment,
maintenance planning, and failure analysis rely heavily on an effective
maintenance history.

72
POST-MAINTENANCE TESTING:
Post-maintenance testing (PMT) helps increase the quality of
maintenance performed.
Basically, PMT has three objectives:
 1. Ensure that the original deficiency has been rectified appropriately.
 2. Ensure that no new deficiencies have been introduced.
 3. Ensure that the item under consideration is ready to perform its
specified mission.
PMT should be carried out after all types of corrective maintenance
activities as well as after some preventive maintenance actions as
considered appropriate. Testing should be commensurate(corresponding
in size/ accurate) with the specific type of maintenance accomplished and
the importance of structure/system/part to facility reliability and safety. In
some situations, this may only require verification and checkout, but in
others formal documented PMT may be necessary.

73
MAINTENANCE SAFETY-RELATED FACTS, FIGURES, AND
EXAMPLES, AND REASONS FOR SAFETY PROBLEMS IN
MAINTENANCE:
• In 1998, approximately 3.8 million workers in the United States suffered
from disabling injuries on the job.
• In 1998, the total cost of work injuries in the United States was in the order
of $125.1 billion.
• In 1993, there were approximately 10,000 work deaths in the United States.
• In 1994, 13.6% of the accidents in the United States mining industry
occurred during maintenance.
• In 1991, an explosion at an oil refining company in Louisiana that killed
four workers occurred as three gasoline synthesizing units were being
brought back to their active state after some maintenance actions.
• In 1990, a steam leak occurred in the fire room on board the U.S.S. Iwo
Jima (LPH 2) naval ship, resulting in ten fatalities. Subsequently, an
investigation revealed that a valve had just been repaired and bonnet
fasteners were replaced with mismatched and wrong material.
• Each year around 35 million hours are lost because of accidents in United
States industries. 74
SAFETY AND MAINTENANCE TASKS:
In addition to the general safety considerations, other factors that influence the
safety dimensions of maintenance tasks include:
• Numerous maintenance tasks occur infrequently, e.g., machinery failures, thus
fewer opportunities to recognize safety-related problems and to introduce remedial
measures.
• Maintenance work performed in unfamiliar surroundings means that hazards
such as rusted handrails, broken light fittings, and missing gratings may pass
unnoticed.
• Difficulty in maintaining regular communication with workers in some
maintenance tasks.
• Some maintenance work may require performing tasks such as disassembly of
corroded parts, or manhandling cumbersome heavy parts in poorly lit areas and
confined spaces. 75
• Disassembling previously working machinery, thus working under the risk
of releasing stored energy.
• Sudden need for maintenance work, allowing limited time to prepare.
• Performance of maintenance work inside or underneath machines such as
air ducts, pressure vessels, and large rotating machines.
• Performance of maintenance work at odd hours, in remote locations, and in
small numbers.
• Need to transfer heavy and bulky materials from a warehouse to the
maintenance workplace, sometimes using lifting and transport equipment
well outside a strict maintenance regime.
76
GUIDELINES FOR EQUIPMENT DESIGNERS TO
IMPROVE SAFETY IN MAINTENANCE:
One way to improve maintenance safety is to minimize the need for
maintenance in systems or equipment at the design stage. If the need for
maintenance cannot be eliminated, the designers should follow guidelines
for improving maintenance safety as follows:
• Simplify the design as much as possible. Complexity generally adds to
maintenance problems.
• Provide fail-safe designs to prevent injury or damage in the event of a
failure.
• Develop designs or procedures to minimize the occurrence of
maintenance errors.
• Minimize or eliminate the need for special tools/equipment.
• Incorporate devices or other measures to permit early detection or
prediction of potential failures so that maintenance can be carried out
prior to actual failure with somewhat lower risk of hazard.

77
• Design for easy accessibility so that items or units requiring
maintenance are not difficult to remove, replace, service, or check.
• Develop the design such a way to reduce the probability of
maintenance workers being injured by electric shock, contact with a hot
surface, escaping high-pressure gas, etc.
• Eliminate the opportunity to perform maintenance or adjustments close
to hazardous operating equipment or parts.
• Provide guards against moving parts and interlocks to block access to
hazardous locations.

78
MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL SAFETY
Usually, emphasis is placed on designing safety into machines rather than on
the safety of the operators, maintainers, etc. On occasion, more protection is
required for maintenance workers beyond the safety designed into machines or
processes. Two important areas of maintenance worker safety are respiratory
protection and protective clothing. Figure 9.3 shows four areas in which
respiratory protection is required. The protective clothing includes items such
as:
• Ear defenders: These are necessary where machine or process noise can
damage maintenance workers’ ears.
• Boots and toecaps: Well-fitting boots with steel toecaps can reduce the risk of
injury in situations such as dismantling used equipment where heavy metal
parts are difficult to hold and are likely to slip and drop on exposed feet.
• Helmets and hard hats: These are useful to protect maintenance workers from
head injury.
• Gloves: These are important to protect hands from injury when performing
various types of maintenance tasks.
• Goggles, visors, screens, and safety glasses: These items protect eyes
from flying chips, sparks, chemical sprays, jetted hydraulic fluid, etc. 79
Condition-Based Monitoring (CM) & Structural Machine
Health Monitoring (SMHM)
Condition monitoring is the use of advanced technologies to determine the
condition of equipment and predict its failure. This in turn should inform
predictive maintenance (PM) or reliability-centred maintenance (RCM).
Condition monitoring suggested that "just as your physician uses a variety
of tests and evaluations to assess your state of health, we should do the same
for our machinery”.
There are six steps to a healthy machine:
 what are the possible failures?
 which of these failures are significant?
 how can we avoid these failures?
 if we can’t avoid failure, can we get an early warning?
 select a suite of tests to detect early warning signs.
 collect the results of the tests at one decision point.

80
Techniques that can be used include:
 The Human Senses
 look, listen, smell, taste, feel etc.
 Motor Current Analysis
 Oil Analysis and Tribology
 Non-destructive testing (NDT)
Integrated condition monitoring service (ICMS) proposes that "integrated
condition monitoring helps optimize maintenance by judging the health of
machinery using non-invasive sensing technology".
The benefits of an ICMS approach are:
 Early detection of impending machinery failure to help lower the risk.
 Scheduling and utilization of maintenance resources is more efficient.
 Reductions in time spent in dry dock, if a pre-dry-docking fault locating
survey is performed.
 Reduced likelihood of ‘maintenance induced’ failures.
 Availability of global condition monitoring data.

81
Risk-Based Inspection (RBI):
 A method for deciding which components to inspect.
 Instead of a fixed inspection interval, RBI considers the risk of an item
of plan basis.
 A component, failing and decides the inspection interval on that
Consider the Probability (likelihood) and the Severity (consequence) of
failure separately.
 Classify them either as a range or simply as low/medium/high.
 A high number is a high risk.
 Endeavor to reduce the calculated risk.

82
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)
 A damage detection process used for aerospace, civil and mechanical
engineering infrastructure which monitors the system over time.
 Typically, an array of sensors collects dynamic response measurements
either continuously or at regular intervals.
 An earth filled masonry arch bridge carrying a road or railway
 Cracking at joints in an offshore oil exploitation rig jacket
 Corrosion of a liquid storage tank while full of hazardous chemicals
 Barely visible impact damage (dropped tools on CFRP aircraft wings)
 The options include:
 Mechanical/dead-weight loading with measurement of deflections
 Modes and frequencies of vibration
 Embedded sensors
83
 Non-destructive testing technologies
Computerized Maintenance Management Systems:
 Very important operational and management tool
 Management of assets, improving reliability, reducing downtime.
CMMS functions:
• Automating administrative tasks
• Gathering relevant information
• Develop and manage a maintenance strategy
• Plan schedules for maintenance, replacements, upgrades
 Benefits of using CMMS:
• Guarantee that all required tasks and activities are completed on time.
• Incorporate various mechanisms to ensure execution of tasks, including
automatic listing of activities, reminders, alerts, escalation procedures, and
easy access to information.
• Improve reporting and analysis capabilities.
• Comply with Health and Safety Regulations.
• Improve Business Planning and make informed decisions.
• Improve operational efficiencies.
• Increase productivity and profitability.
• Perform activities effectively; simplify repeatable tasks; provide your staff
with easy to use tools that focus on performing tasks. 84
Need for a CMMS:
• Requirements depend upon the size of the organization, type of assets,
number and quality of staff available.
• Should data be kept on computer - can it all be done on paper?
• Often preparation of reports for management is difficult and time consuming
because the raw data is not readily available.
• Well-designed and easy-to-use CMMS solution can improve daily activities
as well as index and sort through years of information related to the
maintenance, cleaning and strategic planning of buildings, plant and
equipment.
• Regardless of the size of an organization a database of the work performed
must be maintained.
• Automation includes improvement of daily activities, automatic tracking of
inventories, better work assignments, and shift of your focus towards
exceptions, not routine matters.

85
Inventory Control in Maintenance
Usually, the major complaint of those involved in maintenance is the
unavailability of materials and spares at the moment of need. In many
maintenance organizations, materials account for one-third to one-half of the
operating budget, and more in some capital-intensive industrial sectors.
Needless to say, maintenance functions rely heavily on the availability of items
such as spares for production equipment and machinery. Specific examples
include lubricants, valves, pipe fittings, paints, angle iron, channel iron,
controls, nuts and bolts. A well-managed inventory system of such items helps
reduce maintenance cost, worker and equipment downtime, and improves
productivity. Inventory control plays an important role in maintenance.

86
SAFETY STOCK
The main purpose of having the safety stock is to mitigate the risk of running out
of items at the moment of need. One technique for providing safety stock is
known as the “two-bin system.” In this case, a fixed replenishment order is placed
as soon as the stock level hits the preset reorder point. More specifically, the
items are stored in two bins, the replenishment order is placed as soon as the first
bin becomes empty, the items from the second bin are used until receiving the
ordered items. The value of the preset reorder point depends upon factors such as
the rate of demand and its associated variability, the stock out cost, and the lead
time and its associated variability. states the following five factors on which the
safety stock required depends:
1. Reorder frequency
2. Desired level of service
3. Ability to forecast/control lead times
4. Demand variability during the lead time
5. Length of the lead time interval

87
MATERIALS HANDLING:

Material handling equipment (MHE) is mechanical equipment used for the

movement, storage, control, and protection of materials, goods and products
throughout the process of manufacturing, distribution, consumption, and
disposal. The different types of equipment can be classified into four major
categories: transport equipment, positioning equipment, unit load formation
equipment, and storage equipment.
 When system is in automation processes.
 Automated guided Vehicle:
 Automated Storage and Retrieval system:
 When system is in manually processes.
 Conveyers, Crane ,Elevators and Hoist, Industrials Truck and Auxiliary
equipment. 88
Plain bearing:
 Plain bearings are also known as sleeve or journal bearings.
 Holds the rotating shaft specially in turbines, engines, compressors, pumps etc.
 Bears the axial or radial load on the shaft.
 Reduces the vibration of the shaft.
 Plain bearings are cheap but can cause immense damage to other parts of the
equipment.
 In order to let the shaft move we need to reduce the friction by lubricating both the
 surfaces that is of the journal and the bearing.
 For the satisfactory operation of the bearing the key is proper lubrication that will
increase the life of the bearing as well as it eliminates abnormal operation.
 There are some cases where self-lubricating plain bearings are used that requires
no lubrication.
 Normally the system of lubrication in plain bearing is hydrodynamic lubrication
system .
 Plain bearing maintains the lubricating film thickness b/w the bearing and the
journal that ranges b/w ¾ to 2 thou/in of the shaft dia.
 The most important maintenance of the plain bearing is adequate quantity, quality,
type and method of lubrication.
89
Preventive maintenance of plain bearing Lubrication:
 Proper lubrication is the key factor.
 Primary purpose of the lubrication to maintain the clearance, avoid metal to metal
 contact, absorb and transfer the heat, absorb the dirt particles etc.
 Periodic checking and changing of the lubricant according to the plan.
 Proper flow of the lubricant without any blockage.
 Adequate amount of the lubricant.
 Proper grade of the lubricant according to OEM (original equipment
manufacturer)
 recommendation
 Avoid high pressures.
 Avoid low pressures to avoid cavitation.
 Proper Film thickness of the lubricating film.

90
Cleanliness:
The most important consideration is the cleanliness of the lubrication used after the
proper lubrication in maintenance.
 During the operation some dust or dirt particles may enter the lubricant that will
work as a abrasive particles in the lubricating process and wear the surface of
the bearing and erode the material of the bearing increasing the clearance, dirt
particles will not only overlay the bearing surface but also will help in
increasing the impact of fatigue loading that fails the bearing.
 Lubricating filter must always be checked and cleaned.
 If the operation of the bearing is beyond its limit or if the bearing is working in
the dusty environment then the checking of the lubricant must be done 1/3rd or
½ of the specified period by OEM (original equipment manufacturer).
 Periodic change of the lubricant according to OEM (original equipment
manufacturer) recommendation.
 Contamination in the lubricant can not be only solid particles but also liquid
additives that may oxidize or react the surface of the bearing.
 There is a limit to which the dirt particles can be avoided that depends upon the
embed debility of the bearing material.

91
Symptoms, Inspection & Reconditioning of the bearing failure:
Overheating of the bearing:
This can cause localized or full burning of the bearing surface resulting in
deformation.
Contaminated lubricant:
This can cause excessive scoring , wear and tear that damages the bearing as well as
shaft more.
Vibration:
This can cause damage to the shaft and the rotating object
Noise:
This can create the noise pollution
Chocked filter:
This will reduce level of lubricant inlet to the bearing and increase the load on the
pump.

92
Inspection of the Plain Bearing:
 Open the bearing in the clean environment.
 Orderly place the dismantled parts.
 Failure of the bearing internally can be seen during the inspection:
 Wear.
 Scoring
 Fatigue failure
 Cavitation failure
 Dirt.
 Corrosion
 Wiping
 Burning

93
ROLLING-ELEMENT BEARINGS:
Reliable bearing performance is a key factor in reducing maintenance costs and in
improving machine availability. When bearings fail, they can bring equipment to an
unscheduled halt.
Every hour of downtime due to premature bearing failure can result in costly lost
product, especially in capital intensive equipment. To keep machinery in peak
operating condition, the bearings should be properly aligned and protected from
extreme temperatures, moisture, and contaminants.

WHY BEARINGS FAIL:

1. A bearing failure may occur for many reasons, such as, heavier loading than had
been originally anticipated, ineffective seals or mountings which are too tight
resulting in too little bearing internal clearance, and so on.
2. The small fraction of bearings that actually do fail, less than 10% die from old age
(e.g., fatigue of the bearing surfaces), 24% fail because of poor lubrication, 20%
because of improper installation, 27% from misapplication and the rest fail as a result
of liquid or solid contaminants entering the bearing or because of handling damage.
3. The pattern of failure can vary according to the specific industry where the bearing
is used. For example, in the pulp and paper industry, poor lubrication and
contamination are the major causes of failure, not fatigue. 94
Bearing temperature:
Bearing temperature generally rises with start-up and stabilizes at a temperature
slightly lower than at start-up (normally 10 to 40˚C higher than room temperature) in a
certain time. The time before stabilizing depends on the size, type, speed, and
lubrication system of the bearing and the heat dissipation condition around the
bearing.
1. Extremely insufficient or excessive lubricant.
2. Poor installation of the bearings.
3. Extremely small bearing clearance or extremely heavy load.
4. Extremely high friction between lip and seal groove.
5. Improper lubricant type.
6. Creep between the fitting surfaces.
Inspection of bearing:
Inspection of a machine's bearings during operation is important to prevent
unnecessary bearing failure.
1. Check of bearings in operation -- check bearing temperature, noise, and vibration,
as to examination of the properties of lubricant for to determine when lubricant should
be replenished or exchanged.
2. Inspection of bearings after operation. Any change in a bearing that is carefully
examined after operation and during periodic inspections that will help as to take
95
measures for prevent recurrence.
Load rating:
The ISO definition of the basic rating life is the most common and is at 1 million
revolutions. Some taper roller bearings are rated on the basis of 90 million
revolutions, or 500 rev/min (rpm) for 3000 hours. There are several other “bearing
lives,” including service life and design or specification life.
 Service life is the actual life achieved by a specific bearing before it becomes
unserviceable. Failure is not generally due to fatigue, but due to wear, corrosion,
contamination, seal failure, etc. The service life of a bearing depends to a large
extent on operating conditions, but the procedures used to mount and maintain it,
are equally important. Despite all recommended precautions, a bearing can still
experience premature failure. In this case it is vital that the bearing be examined
carefully to determine a reason for failure so that preventive action can be taken.
The service life can either be longer or shorter than the basic rating life.
 Specification life is the required life specified by the equipment builder and it is
based on the hypothetical load and speed data supplied by the builder and to which
the bearing was selected. Many times this required life is based on previous field
or historical experiences.

96
MAINTENANCE OF PRECISION CHAIN DRIVES:
1. Every chain drive should be checked periodically for alignment. Misalignment is
conclusively indicated when the sides of sprocket teeth or inside surfaces of the
chain-link plates show wear. Immediate steps should be taken to realign the drive
when these defects are evident.
2. Chain were checked for excessive slack. If the chain is running close to the tips of
the teeth of the larger sprocket, the chain should be replaced. This can be checked
visually while the drive is running or by lifting the chain away from the large
sprocket, making sure the chain is in mesh with the sprocket teeth.
3. Do not install a new chain on sprockets that are badly worn. Worn sprockets
should be replaced to ensure proper chain fit on the sprockets, thus eliminating the
possibility of premature wear of the replacement chain. The life of a worn sprocket
may be extended by reversing it on the shaft to bring a new set of working tooth
surfaces into use. If this is done, be careful to check alignment and make sure the
sprocket runs true in its new position.
4. New drives should be inspected frequently for any possible interference with the
chain. Naturally, if a chain is rubbing or striking against any obstruction, it will
necessitate premature replacement.
5. Packing foreign material between the sprocket teeth will occasionally cause the
chain to ride high on the sprocket teeth, exert undue stresses and accelerate wear in
the chain, and cause abnormal wear of the sprocket teeth. 97
1. If roller chains have not been lubricated properly, the joints will have a brownish
(rusty) colour and the pins of the connecting link of the chain, when removed, will be
discoloured (light or dark brown). Also, the pins will be roughened, grooved, or
galled. Properly lubricated chains will not show the brownish colour at the joints, and
the connecting link pins will be brightly polished with a very high luster.
2. Even under the best operating conditions, periodic cleaning of the chain is good
economy. Gummed lubricant and the products of normal wear cause abnormally
rapid pin and bushing wear. A chain exposed to dusty surroundings requires more
frequent cleanings. Clean a chain as follows:
 Remove the chain from the sprockets.
 Wash the chain in kerosene. If the chain is badly gummed, soak it for several
hours in the cleaning fluid and then rewash it in fresh fluid.
 After draining off the cleaning fluid, soak the chain in oil to restore the internal
lubrication.
 Hang the chain over a rod to drain off the excess lubricant.
 Inspect the chain for wear or corrosion. While the chain is off the sprockets, clean
the sprockets with kerosene and inspect them for wear or corrosion.
 Unless properly protected, the components of a chain drive will deteriorate during
 long periods of idleness. If a chain is to be stored, remove it from the sprockets
and coat it with a heavy oil or light grease. Then wrap it in heavy, grease-resistant
paper. 98
Chain Drive Applications:
Inverted tooth chains for high speeds For example for machine tools, textile
machines, packaging machines, injection moulding machines, in rewinders or supply
reels, for transmission test benches or other test benches
for sprockets
1. Low-vibration, smooth running 2. High load capacity
3. Low pre-tensioning 4. Quiet operation
for textile machines
1. High load capacity 2. Low wear due to elongation
3. Extremely smooth operation 4. High rigidity
for separators
1. Vertical positioning at vertical shafts 2. High rigidity
3. High load capacity 4. Low wear due to elongation
for chassis dynamometers
1. Low wear due to elongation 2. High efficiency
3. For use with extremely variable speeds and loads 4. No static pre-tensioning

99
CRANES: OVERHEAD AND GANTRY:
Overhead cranes represent major investment in equipment. Reliable functioning of
such equipment is generally vital to operations performed in the areas served by the
cranes. Proper installation, operation, inspection, and maintenance of the crane is
necessary to ensure performance and to avoid premature breakdowns or accidents
which might injure persons working on, under, or near the crane.
CRANE MAINTENANCE:
A preventive-maintenance program should be established based on the
manufacturer’s or a qualified person’s recommendations. Service schedules and
dated detailed records should be maintained. Since the original equipment
manufacturer is usually in the better position to provide replacement parts and
ensure their safety, interchangeability, and suitability for the application, it is
recommended that such parts be obtained from the original equipment
manufacturer.
Typical recommended spare-parts
Governmental regulations

100
Types of cranes:
 Bridge cranes: It consists of two overhead runways built into the building’s
support structure, connected by a single or double beam configuration, called a
“bridge.” The bridge is supported on either end by an end truck, which rides on
wheels along a runway or beam—allowing it to move up and down the bay.
 Gantry cranes: It is similar to a bridge crane, but instead of moving on suspended
runways, the crane uses legs to support the bridge, trolley, and hoist. These legs
travel on rails that are embedded in, or on top of the floor or ground structure.
 Monorail cranes: This type of crane uses a trolley to carry the hoist along a
single path. It do not utilize a bridge or girder design—instead, the trolley is
designed to connect to an I-beam, often already built into the ceiling structure,
and runs along the flat surface (flange) on the bottom of the beam.
 Jib cranes workstation cranes: It come in a number of different styles and types
but do not utilize a runway or track system. They can be stand-alone or column /
wall-mounted and offer a wide variety of capacities, heights, and spans.

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CHAIN HOISTS:
Chain hoists, both manually and power operated, are a widely used type of hoisting
equipment. Their simplicity, dependability, and relatively low cost have made them
standard equipment in manufacturing plants, foundries, mills, refineries, repair
shops, garages, and practically every phase of the construction field .
TYPES OF CHAIN HOISTS:
 Manually Lever-Operated Chain Hoists (Pullers):-These lightweight, portable
tools can be used for pulling horizontally, vertically, or at any angle. A reversible
ratchet mechanism, located in the lever, permits short stroke operation for both
tensioning or relaxing.
 Hand-Chain Manually Operated Chain Hoists:- These hoists are most frequently
used for overhead lifting applications where the use of a powered hoist may not
be practical. These would include many maintenance- or construction-type
applications where a power source may not be readily available or the
portability, load-spotting accuracy, or close-quarter capability of a hand chain
operated hoist may be required.
 Powered Chain Hoists: Powered chain hoists are typically used for repetitive
higher speed lifting, as often encountered in production applications. Most
powered hoists utilized electrical power, although quite a number of chain hoists
are air-powered. Both types of powered units are equipped with either push-
button or pendant rope controls. 102
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