MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

ME-220- U4

MODULE-I

CASTING
Manufacturing is the process of
converting raw materials into
products.
Introduction to Manufacturing
Phases Of The Manufacturing Process
Manufacturing Processes
 Types of Materials
Ferrous Metals: iron and steel.
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: aluminum,
magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, superalloys,
beryllium, zirconium, low-melting alloys, precious metals.
Plastics: thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers.
Ceramics: glass, graphite, diamond.
Composite materials: reinforced plastics, metal-matrix
and ceramic-matrix composites, honeycomb structures.
 Manufacturing Processes for Metals
• Casting: expendable mold and permanent mold.
• Forming and Shaping: rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet
forming, powder metallurgy, molding
• Machining: turning, boring, drilling, milling, planing, shaping,
broaching, grinding, ultrasonic machining, chemical machining,
electrical discharge machining (EDM), electrochemical machining,
high-energy beam machining
• Joining: welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion bonding, adhesive
bonding, mechanical joining
• Finishing: honing, lapping, polishing, burnishing, deburring, surface
treating, coating, plating
 Manufacturing Processes
for Plastics
• Plastics are shipped to manufacturing plants
as pellets or powders and are melted just
before the shaping process. Polymers melt at
relatively low temperatures and are easy to
handle.

• Plastics can be molded and formed, as well as

machined and joined, into many shapes with
relative ease.
Chapter-I

SAND CASTING
• Casting is a process by which a liquid material
is poured into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed
to solidify.

• The solidified part is also known as a casting,

which is ejected or broken out of the mold to
complete the process.
 SAND CASTING
Sand casting is a metal casting process characterized

• By using sand as the mold material.

• It is relatively cheap

• Bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand.

• Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries.

Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via a sand casting
process.
 BASIC STEPS IN MAKING SAND CASTINGS

1. Patternmaking:
Patterns are required to make molds. A pattern is a replica
of the final product and is used for preparing mould cavity
The mold is made by packing molding sand around the
pattern. The mold is usually made in two parts so that the
pattern can be withdrawn.
2. Molding
It is the operation necessary to prepare a mold for
receiving the metal.

It consists of
 ramming sand around the pattern placed in support
 removing the pattern,
 setting cores in place,
 creating the gating/feeding system to direct the metal into the
mold cavity
3. Melting and pouring

They are the processes of preparing molten metal of the

proper composition and temperature and pouring this
into the mold.

4. Cleaning
This includes all the operations required to remove the
gates and risers that constitute the gating/feeding system
and to remove the adhering sand, scale, parting fins,
andother foreign materials.
Steps of Sand Casting

Drag cope
PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND
• Refractoriness
• Permeability
• Cohesiveness
• Green strength
• Dry strength
• Flowability or plasticity
• Adhesiveness
• Collapsibility
• Miscellaneous properties
• Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand
to withstand high temperatures without breaking down
or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a
highly important characteristic of molding sands.

• Permeability is also termed as porosity of the molding

sand in order to allow the escape of any air, gases or
moisture present or generated in the mold when the
molten metal is poured into it.

• Cohesiveness is the property of molding sand by virtue

which the sand grain particles interact and attract each
other within the molding sand.
• The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have sufficient
strength and toughness to permit the making and handling of the mold.
For this, the sand grains must be adhesive, sand grains having high
adhesiveness will cling to the sides of the molding box. Also, the sand
grains must have the property known as cohesiveness

• As soon as the molten metal is poured into the mold, the moisture in the
sand layer adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated and this dry sand
layer must have sufficient strength to its shape in order to avoid erosion
of mold wall during the flow of molten metal.

• Flowability is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a
fluid. It will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and
distribute the ramming pressure evenly all around in all directions.
• .
• Adhesiveness the is property of molding sand
to get stick or adhere with foreign material
such sticking of molding sand with inner wall
of molding box.

• Collapsibility: After the molten metal in the

mold gets solidified, the sand mold must be
collapsible so that free contraction of the
metal occurs and this would naturally avoid
the tearing or cracking of the contracting
metal.
• Miscellaneous properties

 the molding sand should not stick to the

casting

 should not chemically react with the metal

 should be cheap and easily available

 It should be reusable
 Types of Molding Sand
A. Depending upon the purity and other constituents present

1. Natural sand.
 Natural sand is directly used for molding and contains 5-20% of clay as
binding material.
 It needs 5-8% water for mixing before making the mold.
 Its main drawback is that it is less refractory as compared to synthetic
sand.
 Many natural sands have weak molding properties. These sands are
reconditioned by mixing small amounts of binding materials like bentonite
to improve their properties.
2. Synthetic sand.
• It is a formulated sand.
• Sand formulations are done to get certain
desired properties not possessed by natural
sand.
• The properties of synthetic sand can be
controlled by mixing different ingredients.
• Synthetic sands are used for making heavy
castings.
3. loam sand.
• Loam sand contains many ingredients, like fine
sand particles, finely ground refractories, clay,
graphite and fiber reinforcements.
• In many cases, the clay content may be of the
order of 50% or more.
• When mixed with water, the materials mix to
a consistency resembling mortar
 B. According to their use

1. Green sand
• Green sand is also known as natural sand .
• It is fine, soft, light, and porous.
• Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the
hand and it retains the shape and the
impression to give to it under pressure.
• Molds prepared by this sand are not requiring
backing and hence are known as green sand
molds.
2. Dry sand
• Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable
oven after the making mold , is called dry sand.
• It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal
stability.
• It is mainly suitable for larger castings.
• Mold prepared in this sand are known as dry sand
molds
3. Loam sand
4. Facing sand
• It is directly next to the surface of the pattern. It
covers the pattern all around it
• it comes in direct contact with molten metal
when it is poured.
• This sand must possess high strength and
refractoriness.
• It is made of silica sand and clay, without the
use of used sand.
5. Backing sand
• It is the bulk of sand and used to back up the
facing sand and is used to fill the whole volume
of the molding flask.
• Used molding sand is mainly employed for this
purpose.
• The backing sand is also called black sand
because that old, repeatedly used molding
sand is black in color.
6. Parting sand
• This sand is used to ensure that the green sand
does not stick to the pattern
• It consists of clay free dried silica sand, sea sand
or burnt sand
7.Core sand
• Core sand is used for making cores
• it is also known as oil sand since it is made using
highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders
 PATTERNS
TYPES OF PATTERNS
1. Single piece pattern
• single pattern is the most inexpensive
of all types of patterns.
• It is used only in cases where the job is
very simple and does not create any
withdrawal problems.
• It is also used for application in very
small-scale production or in prototype
development.
• This type of pattern is expected to be
entirely in the drag and one of the surface
is expected to be flat which is used as
the parting plane.
• If no such flat surface exists, the molding becomes complicated.
2. Split or two piece pattern

• Pattern for intricate castings.

• It is split along the parting surface
• One half of the pattern is molded in drag and the other half in
cope.
• The two halves of the pattern must be aligned properly by
making use of the dowel pins
 3. Gated patterns
It is a loose pattern that has the gating
system included as a part of the pattern.

This eliminates the time and inconsistency

associated with hand-cutting the gates and
runners.

4. loose piece pattern

Some patterns have loose pieces in order to
enable their easy with drawl from the mould.

These pieces form and integral part of the

pattern during molding.

After the mould is complete, the pattern is

withdrawn leaving the pieces in the sand

They are later with drawn separately

5. Match plate pattern

• Having the cope and drag portions mounted

on opposite sides of a plate that conforms
to the contour of the parting surface.
• The gates and runners are also mounted on
the match plate

6. Cope and drag pattern

•A cope and drag pattern is a split pattern having
the cope and drag portions each mounted on
separate match plates.

•These patterns are used when in the production

of large casting
7. Sweep pattern

• A sweep pattern consists of a board having a profile of the desired

mold

• It is revolved around a suitable spindle or guide produces that mold.

• Two are usually required, one to sweep the cope profile and the
other the drag profile.

8. Skeleton pattern
• Skeleton pattern is used for making very huge
castings

• when the pattern requires lot of pattern

material Instead of using the solid pattern use
hollow pattern

• Make the outer surface of the mould cavity

• Can save the pattern material

 Materials
1. WOOD.
(+) Cheap, easily available, light, easiness in surfacing, preserving (by shellac coating), workable,
ease in joining, fabrication

(-) Moisture effects, wear by sand abrasion, warp during forming, not for rough use.

Egs. Burma teak, pine wood, mahogany, Sal, Deodar, Shisham, Walnut, Apple tree

2. METAL:
For durability, strength

Egs: Al alloys, Brass, Mg alloys, Steel, cast Iron for mass production
 Assignment

Pattern Allowances
838,860
 Pattern Allowances:

1: shrinkage or contraction allowance:

The various metals used for casting contract after solidification in the mould. Since the contraction is
different for different materials, therefore it will also differ with the form or type of metal.
2: Draft allowance
It is a taper which is given to all the vertical walls of the pattern for easy and
clean withdraw of the pattern from the sand without damaging the mould
cavity. It may be expressed in millimeters on a side or in degrees. The amount
of taper varies with the type of patterns. The wooden patterns require more
taper than metal patterns because of the greater frictional resistance of the
wooden surfaces.
3: Finish or machining allowance
The allowance is provided on the pattern if the casting is to be machined. This allowance is given in
addition to shrinkage allowance. The amount of this allowance varies from 1.6 to 12.5 mm which
depends upon the type of the casting metal, size and the shape of the casting. The ferrous metals require
more machining allowance than non ferrous metals.
4: Distortion or camber allowance
This allowance is provided on patterns used for casting of such design in which the contraction is not
uniform throughout.
5: Rapping or shaking allowance
This allowance is provided in the pattern to compensate for the rapping of mould because the pattern is
to be rapped before removing it from the mould.
 Core

It is a device used most commonly in sand

casting, to produce internal cavities. The core
is normally a disposable item that is destroyed
to get it out of the piece.
 Types of core according to shape and
position of core

Horizontal Core Vertical Core Hanging or Cover Core

•Most common and •This core is

simplest type. positioned vertically
•Core over hang from
• This core is arranged inside the mould.
•usual practice is to the cope and does not
horizontally in mould.
•Generally round cross- have any support at
have greater part of
the bottom in the drag
section core are used. the core in the drug
position of the
mould.
 Balanced Core Kiss Core

•Balanced core is used when

•It is support with help of
blind hole is required
•It is one which is supported cope and drag box
•It is used when number
and balanced from its one
end only. of holes are require
 Assignment

Sand Molding Machines

825 and 813
 Gating and Riser
2. Sprue
•It is a vertical passage made generally in the cope
using tapered sprue pin
•It is tapered with its bigger end at to receive the
molten metal the smaller end is connected to the
runner.
•It helps to feed molten metal without turbulence

3. Gate
•It is a small passage or channel being cut by gate
cutter
• connect runner with the mould cavity

4. Runner
•It is a channel which connects the sprue to
the gate for avoiding turbulence and gas
1. Pouring basin entrapment
•It is the conical hollow element portion of the
gating system which helps to feed the molten 5. Riser
metal •Molten metal rises in it after filling the mould cavity
•It may be made out of core sand or it may be completely.
cut in cope portion of the sand mold. •The molten metal in the riser compensates the
shrinkage during during soldification
•It also permits the escape of air and mould gases.
 Shell Mold Casting
• Shell molding is similar to sand casting.

• A machined pattern of grey iron or aluminum is

used in this process.

• The pattern is heated to 2500C to 2600C

• The sand resin mixture is poured over its surface

• The heated pattern melts the resin creating bonds

between the sand grains
After a dwell period the pattern and sand inverted
and extra sand is cleaned off.

The mold cavity is now formed by a hardened shell

of sand.

The shell thus formed constitutes one half of the

mold.
Two such halves are placed over one another to
make the complete mold.
This process is ideal for complex shaped medium
sized parts.
 Ceramic mold casting

• A ceramic slurry is prepared

by mixing fine grained
refractory powders of Zircon
(ZrSiO4), Alumina (Al2O3),
Fused Silica (SiO2) and a
liquid chemical
binder(Alcohol based Silicon
Ester)
• Slurry is poured quickly
over a pattern
• The pattern is then removed
and the mold is then left to
dry.
• Followed by firing the mold
 Investment Casting
• It is also referred to as lost-wax casting since
the pattern is made of wax.
• The wax patterns are first dipped into a slurry
of refractory material
• When heated the wax melts away keeping a
refractory mold.
• The mold is then further cured to achieve
proper strength.
• Very high melting temperature material can be
cast in investment casting process because of
the refractory mold.
• The molten metal is poured into the mold and
is taken out after solidification by breaking the
mold.
• Very high dimensional accuracy and surface
finish can be achieved in investment casting
process.
• However, the tooling cast is usually high
 Vacuum Casting
•It employees a sand mold which
contains no moisture are binders.
•A special pattern with tiny holes is
used
•A thin plastic sheet is kept over the
pattern and vacuum pressure is
turned on
•Causes the sheet to adhere to the
pattern

•A special flask with holes is used in

this process
•The flask is placed over the pattern
and filled with sand
•Sprue and pouring
cup are cut in the
molding sand

•Another plastic sheet

is placed over the mold

•The vacuum pressure

acting through the
flask is turned on.

•The plastic sheet

adheres to the top of
the mould
•Vacuum is turned off and the
pattern is removed.

•Vacuum pressure from the flask is

still on

•This causes the plastic sheet to

adhere to the top and bottom

•The film on the bottom is now

holding the impression of the
pattern on the sand due to vacuum
pressure
•The drag portion of the mold
is made in the same fashion

•Note that there are now 4

plastic sheets

•Molten metal is now poured

into the mold cavity

•The sheets will now melt and

away due to the heat
 Slush Casting
This is used to make toys and
parts that are ornamental in
nature

•The metal start

solidifying from the wall
towards the centre

•A metal skin forms first

•The skin thickness as

more of the metal casting
solidifies
When the solid liquid
reaches certain point, the
mould is turned round
and the remaining liquid
is drained out.
 Pressure Casting
•This is a permanent mold process

•Two blocks are machined accurately, so that they

can open and closed for removing the metal piece.

•The gating system is machined in the mold

•The mold is set up above the supply of liquid metal

•A refractory tube is used to feed the metal to the

mold

•The chamber in which the liquid metal kept is air

tight

•Air pressure is applied in the chamber

•This will cause the metal to flow to the mold cavity

•The air pressure is maintained until the casting

solidifies.

•After solidifications the mold is opened and casting

is removed
Pressure Die Casting
Pressure die casting is suitable
for large batch size production

Very high production rates can

be achieved

Not suitable for casting of high

melting temperature materials as
the die material has to withstand
the melting temperature of the
casting.

Dies in the pressure die casting

process are usually very costly.
Centrifugal casting
• The centrifugal casting is very
suitable for axi-symmetric parts

• Molten metal is poured at the

center of a rotating mold or die

• Lighter impurities are crowded

towards the center of the case
because of centrifugal force

• For producing a hollow part, the

axis of rotation is placed at the
center of the desired casting.

• Both horizontal and vertical

centrifugal castings are widely
used
The molds used in true centrifugal casting
are round, and are typically made of iron,
steel, or graphite.

:
Semi centrifugal casting process the mold is rotated around its symmetry axis. It
may have cores also. The difference between semi centrifugal casting and true
centrifugal is that the mold is filled completely with molten metal, which is
supplied to the casting through a central sprue.

Centrifuging is used for casting unsymmetrical

castings in groups. Feeding to the mold
cavities is done by central sprue by the action
of centrifugal forces. When castings are
generated in multiple layers by placing one
over the other then it is called stack molding.
 Assignment

Continuous casting (156,157,158)

Squeeze casting(123, 124,126)

Defects in casting
(108,118,119)
 Design Considerations for Casting

• Compensation for shrinkage of the solidified

molten metal by making patterns of slightly
oversize.
• In sand casting, it is more economical and accurate
if the parting line is on a flat plane
 Design Considerations (cont.)
Some degree of taper, or draft is Attach the raiser near to the heavier
recommended to the pattern for its section as thinnest sections are farthest
easy removal from the raiser and solidify first
 Design Considerations (cont.)
T
The interior walls and sections are
Abrupt changes in sections should be
recommended to be 20% thinner than the
avoided. Fillets and tapers are preferable outside members to reduce the thermal and
to sharp steps residual stresses.
 Design Considerations (cont.)
To minimize the residual stresses in An odd number of curved
the gear, pulley or wheel casting, a wheel spokes reduce cast-in-
balance between the section size of residual stresses
the rim, spokes and hub is maintained
 Design Considerations (cont.)
• When keys and keyways are required,
the recommended ratio of width to • Heavy bosses connecting to the
depth is 1.0 or more. surface can cause “sinks” due to the
shrinkage of the large mass of the
• The minimum castable key width is 2.3 metal in the boss during cooling.
mm for ferrous metals and 1.5 mm for
nonferrous metals • This shrinkage problem can be
reduced by moving the boss away
from the surface
 Prediction of Solidification Time:
Chvorinov's Rule.
• The heat that must be removed from a casting to solidify is directly
proportional to the amount of superheating and the casting volume.

• The ability to remove heat from a casting is directly related to the

amount of exposed surface area and the insulating value of the
mould.
Chvorinov's rule:
Total solidification time: ts = Cm (V/A)n
• where
n = 1.5 to 2.0
V is the volume of the casting;
A is the surface area; and
Cm is the mould constant,
Problems:
1. In the casting of steel under certain mold conditions, the mold constant in
Chvorinov's Rule is known to be 4.0 min/cm2, based on previous experience. The
casting is a flat plate whose length l= 30 cm, width w= 10 cm, and thickness h=
20 mm. Determine how long it will take for the casting to solidify.
2. A cylindrical-shaped part is to be cast out of aluminum. The radius of the cylinder
r= 250 mm and its thickness h= 20 mm. If the mold constant Cm = 2.0
sec/mm2inChvorinov's Rule, how long will it take the casting to solidify?
3. In casting experiments performed using a certain alloy and type of sand mold, it
took 155sec for a cube-shaped casting to solidify. The cube was 50 mm on a
side.
(a) Determine the value Cm of the mold constant in Chvorinov's Rule.
(b) If the same alloy and mold type were used, find the total solidification time TTS
for a cylindrical casting in which the diameter r = 15 mm and length h = 50 mm.
Solution 1:

Area A = 2(30 x 10) + 2(30 x 2) + 2(10 x 2) = 760 cm 2

Volume V = 30 x 10 x 2 = 600 cm3

Chvorinov’s Rule:

Total solidification time: ts = Cm (V/A)n = 4(600/760)2 = 2.49 min

 Solution 2:

Area A = 2 π r2+ 2π r h = 2 π (250)2+ 2π (250) (20) = 424,115 mm2

Volume V = π r2h = π (250)2(20) = 3,926,991 mm3

Chvorinov’s Rule:
Total solidification time: ts = Cm(V/A)2= 2 (3,926,991 / 424,115)2

= 171.5 s = 2.86 min

 (a) Area A = 6 x (50)2= 15,000 mm2

Volume V = (50)3 = 125,000 mm3

(V/A) = 125,000 / 15,000 = 8.333 mm

Cm = tTS/ (V/A)2= 155 / (8.333)2= 2.232 s/mm

(b) Cylindrical casting with r = 15 mm and h = 50 mm.

Area A = 2πr2+ 2πrh = 2π (15)2+ 2π(15)(50) = 6126 mm2

Volume V = πr2h = π(15)2(50) = 35,343 mm3

V/A = 35,343 / 6126 = 5.77

ts = 2.232 (5.77)2= 74.3 s = 1.24 min.