Stem Cells
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT AND STAGES
TYPES AND POTENCY OF STEM CELLS
STEM CELL THERAPIES (NOT EXAMINABLE)
Stem Cells Introductory Movie
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/stemcells/scintro/
Development and maintenance
Early development is characterized by the rapid proliferation of embryonic cells,
which then differentiate to produce the many specialized types of cells that make
up the tissues and organs of multicellular animals
As cells differentiate, their rate of proliferation usually decreases, and most cells in
adult animals are arrested in the G0 stage of the cell cycle
A few types of differentiated cells never divide again, but most cells are able to
resume proliferation as required to replace cells that have been lost as a result of
injury or cell death
In addition, some cells divide continuously throughout life to replace cells that
have a high rate of turnover in adult animals eg. Skin cells and intestinal lining cells
Cell proliferation is carefully balanced with cell death (apoptosis) to maintain a
constant number of cells in adult tissues and organs
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9906/
Stem cells
Stem cells are the body's raw materials — cells from
which all other cells with specialized functions are
generated
Under the right conditions in the body (or a
laboratory!) stem cells divide to form more cells called
daughter cells
These daughter cells either become new stem cells
(‘self-renewal’) or become specialized cells
(differentiation) with a more specific function, such as
blood cells, brain cells, heart muscle cells or bone cells
No other cell in the body has the natural ability to
generate new cell types
Stem cells
STEM CELL Video
https://youtu.be/9db44fBrWrE
These are the early
embryonic stages after
fertilisation
Up until the morula stage,
the cells are all TOTIPOTENT
The blastocyst cells are
PLURIPOTENT
After this, the cells are
known as adult stem cells. In
the gastrula, the stem cells
are MULTIPOTENT
Once the foetus forms, most
of the cells will be
differentiated, although
some adult stem cells will
remain
Morula
Embryo development
Different stages determined by the characteristics of the developing individual
Blastocyst
1 – 2 week: Zygote > Morula > Blastocyst > Gastrula
st nd
3rd - 8th week: Embryo
o Brain, spinal cord and heart begin to grow
o Limb buds develop from ectoderm and mesoderm; hands and feet develop with
webbing; webbing removed later via apoptosis
> 8th week: recognisable as human: Foetus Gastrula
o General body form of a baby is present
o Basic plan of the organ systems is in place
o Heart begins to beat with a regular rhythm
o Lungs begin to form
o Spinal and bone tissues continue to grow 3+ weeks: Embryo
o Eyes and ears begin to form
8+ weeks: Foetus
Two Main Types of Stem Cells
Embryonic stem cells: Adult (somatic) stem cells
Totipotent or pluripotent Multipotent or unipotent
Totipotent: can lead to all types of cells (body and placenta) Multipotent: can lead to various cell types (eg. Red and
Pluripotent: can lead to either body cells (all) or placental white blood cells)
cells Unipotent: can lead to one type of cell (eg. Basal skin cells)
Undifferentiated or relatively undifferentiated Relatively undifferentiated
Found in zygote to blastocyst stages of embryos Found in gastrula and in small numbers in some adult
tissues: hair follicles, bone marrow, spinal cord, germ cells
Can be obtained from surplus 3-5 day old embryos from IVF Remain as stem cells throughout an individual’s life
programs
Can become many cell types Can give rise to a limited range of cells
Eg. Bone marrow stem cells > different blood cells
Can divide indefinitely Cannot divide indefinitely
Potency of stem cells
Cell that can differentiate into more cell types than others have greater potency
Totipotent Pluripotent Multipotent Unipotent
Can give rise to ANY cell Can differentiate to form Can give rise to multiple Can give rise to only one
type any of the three germ but limited cell types type of cell but can divide
> can give rise to any of the 220 layers. >can develop into a limited repeatedly
cell types found in an embryo as >Pluripotent stem cells can give number of cell types in a
well as extra-embryonic cells rise to all cell types of the body particular lineage
(placenta) (but not the placenta)
Most potent of all stem
cells
Only found in zygote and Found in blastocysts Found in the gastrula Found in specific tissues
up to the 16 cell stage >Can make any body cells Found in the tissues of Eg. skeletal muscle stem
morula adult mammals. cells can give rise to more
(From 32 cell stage onwards, >Haematopoietic stem cells skeletal muscle cells
cells will start to become (can make rbcs and wbcs),
differentiated) neural stem cells (can make
neurons and glial cells),
mesenchymal stem cells (can
make muscle, bone and
tendon cells)
Visual Glossary of Stem Cells
http://www.allthingsstemcell.com/glossary/
This glossary has good pics and clear explanations
Video: A Stem Cell Story
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-3J6JGN-_Y
Complete the quiz questions as you watch the video
NOT examinable in 2022
Stem Cell Therapies
Stem cells therapies are considered by many to be a potential powerful new technology in
medicine
For successful stem cell therapy, we need stem cells that can:
o Replicate themselves in cultures in labs
o Differentiate into the particular cells required to treat the disorder
o Regulate self-renewal so they do not grow out of control
o Avoid rejection by the body’s immune system (this applies to tissues grown from stem cells as
well)
The immune response associated with them can be ranked in following order:
1. Adult stem cells from the patient’s own tissues (best tolerated)
2. Embryonic stem cells
3. Adult stem cells from a donor (least well tolerated)
NOT examinable in 2022
Stem Cell Therapies
A limited number of stem cell therapies are in use
Research is continuing
Most likely to be helpful in conditions involving a small,
defined, cell population that needs to be replaced, for
example:
o Parkinson’s disease – replace the small group of brain cells that have
died
o Type I Diabetes – replace the beta cells in the pancreas
o Macular degeneration – replace damaged retinal cells
NOT examinable in 2022
Stem Cell Therapies
Blood (haematopoietic) stem cells
transplants
oHaematopoietic stem cells found in
bone marrow – give rise to all blood
cells
oSome stem cells can also be filtered
from the bloodstream
oBone marrow stem cell transplants are
possible
oThere are two types:
o AUTO or Autologous stem cell transplant (self)
o ALLO or Allogenic stem cell transplant (other)
AUTO (autologous) transplant - you get your own stem cells
after doctors treat the cancer.
1) Stem cells collected from your blood and frozen.
2) You undergo powerful chemotherapy, and rarely,
radiation therapy.
3) Frozen stem cells thawed and put back in your blood
through a tube placed in a vein.
-It takes about 24 hours for your stem cells to reach the
bone marrow. Then they start to grow, multiply, and help
the marrow make healthy blood cells again
-Using the patient’s own cells may not be an option if the
lymphoma has spread to the bone marrow or blood. If that
happens, it may be hard to get a stem cell sample that is
free of lymphoma cells
ALLO (allogenic) transplant, you get another person’s stem
cells. Need to find a match with as similar proteins
(antigens) on the white blood cells as you as possible to
minimise the immune reaction
-It can be difficult to find a match
NOT examinable in 2022
Using Pluripotent Stem Cell Therapies
1) ESCs obtained from embryos at 3-5 days of development (from inner cell mass of a
blastocyst)
Donated by people who have undergone IVF
> Surplus embryos are frozen and stored, and then discarded after 5 years, or can potentially be
donated for ESC research/therapies
Can help treat damaged/diseased organs or tissues
Can form any type of tissue – gut, skin, blood, nerve etc
BUT We still need to refine the way to make them develop into particular cell types
2) Induced pluripotent stem cells
Adult stem cells can be genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state
NOT examinable in 2022
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)
Adult stem cells can be genetically reprogrammed
This makes the cells express genes and factors which are
characteristic of embryonic stem cells
Early research shows iPSCs have many of the important
characteristics of ESCs:
o Express stem cell markers
o Cen generate cells of all three germ layers
But there still may be differences we are not aware of
iPSCs may be useful in transplantation medicine in the
future
They will also be useful for modelling disease processes in
the lab and for testing the effectiveness of medicines etc
NOT examinable in 2022
Using Multipotent Stem Cells for
therapy
1) Cord blood cells
With the consent of the parents, blood can be collected from the umbilical cord of a newborn baby shortly
after birth. This does not hurt the baby or the mother in any way, and it is blood that would otherwise be
discarded as biological waste along with the placenta (another rich source of stem cells) after the birth.
The umbilical cord blood contains haematopoietic stem cells - similar to those found in the bone marrow -
and which can be used to generate red blood cells and cells of the immune system.
Cord blood stem cells are currently used to treat a range of blood disorders and immune system conditions
such as leukaemia, anaemia and autoimmune diseases.
These stem cells are used largely in the treatment of children but have also started being used in adults
following chemotherapy treatment
Another type of cell that can also be collected from umbilical cord blood are mesenchymal stromal cells.
These cells can grown into bone, cartilage and other types of tissues
Umbilical cord blood can be collected and stored in a cord blood bank either in public and private cord
blood banks around Australia.
NOT examinable in 2022
2) Adult somatic stem cells
Adult stem cells have been identified in many organs and tissues, including brain, bone marrow,
peripheral blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscle, skin, teeth, heart, gut, liver, ovarian epithelium, and
testis.
They are thought to reside in a specific area of each tissue (called a "stem cell niche")
These stem cells could be used to regenerate cells to replace diseased or damaged tissues
Some examples of potential treatments include regenerating bone using cells derived from bone
marrow stroma, developing insulin-producing cells for type 1 diabetes, and repairing damaged heart
Source: https://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/4.htm
muscle following a heart attack with cardiac muscle cells
3) Reprogrammed somatic stem cells
Research is being done to look at options to remove tissue-specific stem cells from a patient, correct a
genetic defect in the cells and then transplant the ‘corrected’ stem cells back into the patient
This has been explored for the treatment of genetic conditions such as cystic fibrosis
NOT examinable in 2022
Stem Cell Therapies examples
Intestinal stem cell transplants – research stage only
Lining of intestines undergoes constant repair and renewal Skin graft grown in the lab from
stem cells (http://www.eurostemcell.org/skin-
Contains adult intestinal stem cells stem-cells-where-do-they-live-and-what-can-they-
do)
US scientists harvested viable stem cells from human intestine in 2013 and are researching
possible uses
Epidermal stem cells in skin grafts
Skin contains adult epidermal stem cells and can repair and renew itself after damage
Epidermal skin cells can be harvested from patients and used to grow epidermis in the lab
Layers of epidermis can be grafted onto patients who have lost skin eg. 3rd degree burn victims
NOT examinable in 2022
NOT examinable in 2022
Ethical considerations of Stem Cell
Therapy
In the past, embryonic stem cells were obtained from blastocysts that were then destroyed
This caused huge ethical concerns for many people
Nowadays, new techniques are being developed that do not harm the blastocyst
However there are still issues with consent etc
Adult stem cells from adults or from cord blood during birth are donated with consent, thus
cause fewer ethical problems
Induced pluripotent cells also come from adult donors or from the patient themselves and so
consent is not an issue, however the idea of genetically reprogramming human cells is still
ethically concerning to some.
Video: Stem cells
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WK9GyR5EsLo&feature=youtu.be
