LANGUAGE

RESEARCH
RESEARCH is the investigation of a particular topic
using a variety of reliable, scholarly resources.

RESEARCH is the systematic process of collecting and

analyzing information to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon under study.

RESEARCH is the systematic investigation into and study

of materials and sources in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusions.
 Nature of RESEARCH
NATURE OF RESEARCH
identify, design, collect data,
SYSTEMATIC.

Plan,
LOGICAL.
evaluate Examine procedures to evaluate
conclusions.
EMPIRICAL. Decisions are based on data
(observation)
REDUCTIVE. General relationships are established
from data
REPLICABLE. Actions are recorded
 Nature of RESEARCH

THREE MAJOR GOALS OF RESEARCH

* Establishing facts;
* Analyzing information; and
* Reaching new conclusions.

THREE MAIN ACTS OF DOING

RESEARCH
* Searching for;
* Reviewing; and
* Evaluating information.
 Nature of RESEARCH
TYPES OF RESEARCH SOURCES

1. Knowledge as Belief
Conclusions are not based on empirical investigation,
but on common sense; they should be considered as
bases for forming hypotheses rather than established
knowledge about second language acquisition and
learning.
 Nature of RESEARCH
TYPES OF RESEARCH SOURCES

2. Knowledge as Authority
Certain conclusions become acceptable since they
come from a source whose views
phenomenon on a in his/her field
of
regarded as educated research thereby
judgement, are gaining
popularity. Some methods that were accepted and
became popular on the basis of authority were the
Silent Way, Suggestopedia, and Community Language
Learning.
 Nature of RESEARCH
TYPES OF RESEARCH SOURCES

3. A Priori Knowledge
It resembles beliefs, but this type is usually based on
previous systematic investigation, as in the theory of
language acquisition that ‘to make input
comprehensible to learners and to lead ultimately to
successful classroom acquisition’ modified interaction
is important. (Doughty and Pica 1986)

In second language research, theories begin with a

priori knowledge
 Nature of RESEARCH
TYPES OF RESEARCH SOURCES

4. Knowledge as Empirical Knowledge

Knowledge is a result of empirical study which goes
through the process of observation and experiment.
The researcher interacts with the real world. Observes
the phenomenon, before he draws conclusions.
Theories are tested carefully and proven by other
researchers who are actually involved in language
research by which they gather and validate data
collected.
 Nature of RESEARCH
KINDS OF RESEARCH

1. Basic Research
Also known as “pure” research and is directed towards
the development of a scientific
2. Applied Research
Considered as an action research and is directed
towards practical application of the scientific
knowledge, It attempts to explain certain problems
brought about by certain phenomenon; it modify,
improve an existing theory, or develop a new theory
 Nature of RESEARCH
KINDS OF RESEARCH

3. Practical Research
Directed towards materials development
gained from practical knowledge or experience.
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

How does common sense differ

from research?
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

What are the different sources of

knowledge?
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

Discuss how the three kinds of

research, contribute to further
understanding and knowledge of
language acquisition and learning
phenomena.
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

Think of a linguistic theory that

might have influenced the
development of methods
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
NATURE OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Language Research
Requires consideration of many factors such as
language use, type of users, acquisition process,
setting, research methodology, and related disciplines.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
NATURE OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Language Use

Determines primarily whether the language is first,

second, or foreign to the speaker.

A research on the acquisition of either one of these

three uses of language will greatly vary from one to
another.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
NATURE OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Type of Users

These takes into accounts the age and characteristics of

the learners. These are closely tied up with the
language acquisition process. It is a common belief
that the young learner acquires language faster than the
adult.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
NATURE OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Language Setting

Identifies the environment within which language is

acquired. A native speaker acquires it in a natural
environment – at home, with family members, with
playmates; a second or foreign language learner
acquires it in the classroom under the supervision of a
teacher.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
NATURE OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Research Methodology

Determined by the researcher’s

motivation philosophy, for conductingthe research
conditions under which
and the research is conducted.

A study like this will most likely use tools such as

survey questionnaire and interview.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
NATURE OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Related Discipline

Pertain to areas that influences language study like

education, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and
others. A language acquisition research may consider
pedagogy (education), students’ motivation
(psychology), the role of language in society
(sociology), or the origin and development of the
language (anthropology).
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Parameter 1: Approaches

Refers to how one views the language research to be

conducted. It may be viewed in general or specific
perspective.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Parameter 1: Approaches

1.1 General View

Considers language as whole in order to get a

clearer picture of the relationship of the parts.

For instance, the researcher is interested in finding the general

difficulties of Chinese students in learning the English language or
an aspect of the language, like its phonology.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Parameter 1: Approaches

1.2 Specific Perspective

Considers one small part of the language with a view

of fitting it into a coherent view of the whole problem.

In the study on the difficulties of Chinese students in learning the

phonology of English, the researcher may want to target only the
vowel system, or the consonant system of English.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Parameter 2: Objectives

Concerned with the purpose of the research. It may

aim to discover a certain language phenomenon and
postulate a theory about it afterwards or it may test an
already existing theory, providing or disapproving it
later.

The former is hypothesis-generating; the latter is

hypothesis – testing.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Parameter 2: Objectives
A study investigating the difficulties of Chinese students in
learning the English phonology may later show specific
sounds that the students find difficult in general. From the
findings the researcher may later postulate a theory that
Chinese students find pronouncing sounds of foreign
language that are absent in their first language. In the
study several nationalities were taken as subjects, whose
difficulties were noted and correlated with their first
languages. The results may prove the theory true or false.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Parameter 3: Research Design

Establishes the method used in conducting the study. It

deals with the handling of factors such as scope,
variables, form, and writer’s point of view. These, in
effect, are influenced by approaches and objectives. A
study using general approach aimed at generating
hypothesis may deal with a broad scope, few variables,
less attention to form, and an objective point of view.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Parameter 3: Research Design

For instance, going back to the earlier example of

a research on the difficulties of Chinese
students in pronouncing English sounds, the
scope is broad because the approach is general;
the variables are limited only to age, and first
language; the form includes all English sounds,
and the researcher relies mostly on his/her
interpretative abilities, making subjectively high.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Parameter 4: Data Collection and

Analysis
Data language research may constitute
observed
in behaviors such as
performance, written oral; information language
provided by
subjects of the study, such as attitude, beliefs,
perceptions; records of language proficiency from test,
class ratings, etc.
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

How different is language

research from other kinds of
researches? Why is it a
complex process?
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

What constitute a language

research paradigm? How do the
parameters of the research relate
to one another?
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

Differentiate general from

specific approaches;
hypothesis-generating from
hypothesis testing objectives.
 Nature of RESEARCH
Activity #1

Get a language study and identify its four

parameters. Explain your answers

Select a topic and outline a plan for it

identifying the four parameters.
 Paradigm of LANGUAGE RESEARCH
FRAMEWORK OF LANGUAGE RESEARCH

Parameter 4: Data Collection and Analysis

After identifying the data needed to pursue the study,

the researcher proceeds to pursue the study, the
researcher proceeds to identifying the method/s of
collecting and analyzing these data

The tools commonly used in gathering language data

are tape, observation, attitude questionnaire, and
metalinguistic test.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

1. Selecting and focusing a Research Problem

A. Sources of a Research Problem. A research

topic may be derived from 3 sources:
researchers experience the andinterest, other
language researches; researcheson allied
disciplines.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

1. Selecting and focusing a Research Problem

A. Sources of a Research Problem

1. Researchers experience and interest. A research

problem may come from the researcher’s personal
experience with the study of language which he/she
finds interesting.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

1. Selecting and focusing a Research Problem

A. Sources of a Research Problem

2. Other Language Researches. Most studies

recommend a list of other research topics. From this list, a
researcher may get ideas on interesting topics to work on.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

1. Selecting and focusing a Research Problem

A. Sources of a Research Problem

3. Researches on allied disciplines. Language

study is closely linked with other disciplines as mentioned
earlier. Reading researches in Psychology, Education,
Sociology, Anthropology can provide the researcher a
rich source of topics from which a research problem may
be chosen.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

1. Selecting and focusing a Research Problem

B. Focusing a research problem
After selecting a general topic, the next task to
consider is how to narrow down the topic into something
that can be done within the limits of the researcher’s
environment such as time, resources, researcher’s
expertise. And other conditions under which the study
would be conducted. At this point, the researcher has to
decide whether to work on a general or specific topic.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

1. Selecting and focusing a Research Problem

C. Formulating the general and specific questions
Having decided to work on a specific aspect of the topic,
the researcher now has to translate this choice into general
and specific questions which will constitute the research
statement of the problem. One general problem that
expresses the entire goal of the study will be formulated
followed by three to five specific questions inquiring on
the particulars of the general problem.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

2. Deciding the appropriate methodology and procedure

A.Choosing the appropriate methodology and

procedure. Decisions on the appropriate method of
research to use depend on the research approach and
objectives used in the study. There are many methodologies
used in language research, but the common ones are
descriptive, and experimental
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

2. Deciding the appropriate methodology and procedure

A. Choosing the appropriate methodology
procedure.
and
Examples of a descriptive language study are the oral
proficiency of college students in a certain university,
correlation between grades in English and grades in
other academic subjects among high school students,
comparison of difficulties in learning English among
foreign students in the Philippines.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

2. Deciding the appropriate methodology and procedure

A. Choosing the appropriate methodology
procedure.
and
Examples of an experimental language study
are
effectiveness of multi-intelligence method in teaching
freshman English in college, validation of an
instructional material for teaching English on-line,
comparison of the English proficiencies of regular and
on-line students.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

3. Reviewing related literature and studies

A. Reason for review. A review of related
literature and studies is necessary for two primary
reasons:
1. To broaden the researcher’s
perspective of the research problem and
2. To help him/her focus the problem into a workable
research question.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

3. Reviewing related literature and studies

A. Sources of related literature and studies

1. Libraries. School and other institution libraries are

the primary provider of information for the review.
2. On-line. Today, much information is provided by the
internet which has boosted research. The researcher must
however, very judicious in selecting materials because not
all information posted online is reliable.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

3. Reviewing related literature and studies

A. Sources of related literature and studies

3. Professional Organizations. Some valuable

materials on their specific disciplines are kept by
professional organizations. Attending their conferences will
provide access to these materials.
 PREPARATORY
STAGES
STEPS IN THE PREPARATORY STAGES

3. Reviewing related literature and studies

A. Sources of related literature and studies

4. Foreign embassies. Some researches, especially in

social sciences, will find valuable materials in embassies. A
letter requesting access to these materials endorsed by the
student’s adviser and dean can help facilitate research in
these libraries.
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

What are the preparatory

stages in conducting research?
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

How does a researcher decide on

his research topic?
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

What criteria should be

considered in focusing the
problem?
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

Why is review of related

literature and studies important?
 Nature of RESEARCH
DISCUSSION POINTS

Where can related literature and

studies be found?
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
A. TOPIC SELECTION

1. Identifying a Research Topic

1.Identifying a Topic. A research topic focuses the study

to a defined, manageable size. It provides structure for the
steps in the scientific method and is discussed in many
ways by identifying the research question, the research
problem and the purpose of the research.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
A. TOPIC SELECTION

1. Identifying a Research Topic

Main Sources of Topic

a. Theory. An organized body of concepts, generalizations
and principles that can be subjected to investigation. It
provides conceptually rich topics and confirmation of
some aspects of the theory
b. Personal Experience
c. Replication
d. Library Immersion
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
A. TOPIC SELECTION

2. Narrowing Topic
Problems encountered with broad topics: enlarging the review of the
literature beyond reason, complicating the organization of the
review of the literature itself, and creating studies that are too
general, too difficult to carry out, and too difficult to interpret.

To help narrow the topics, it might help to talk to experts in the field
like professors in college or department or researchers known, or to
read secondary sources that provide overviews of the topics such as
handbooks and reviews of literature.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
A. TOPIC SELECTION

2. Narrowing Topic

There is a difference between narrowing quantitative from

qualitative studies. Quantitative studies tend to narrow the topic
initially while qualitative studies tend to narrow the topic throughout
the research process itself.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
A. TOPIC SELECTION
3. Making a Formal Statement of Quantitative
and Qualitative Research Studies
Quantitative research topic identifies the variables of interest and the
nature of the participants, and describes the specific relationship
between the variables.

Qualitative research topic emerges over the course of the study. It

begins as an initial statement that tends to be stated as a general
issue or concern and becomes focused as more is learned about the
context, participants, and phenomena of interest. It is typically stated
late in a written study.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
A. TOPIC SELECTION
4. Formulating and Non-Researchable
Researchable Topics

Researchable topics can be investigated through collection and

analysis of data. They have theoretical or practical significance and
have been conducted ethically. They contribute to the educational
processes and can be adequately researched given the expertise,
resources, and time constraints of the researcher.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
A. TOPIC SELECTION
4. Formulating and Non-Researchable
Researchable Topics

Non-Researchable topics address philosophical or ethical issues.

They cannot be resolved through the collection and analysis of data.
They address “should” questions. Ultimately, these are matters of
opinion.
 Nature of RESEARCH
Sample Research Titles:

A phonological Awareness Program for

Indigenous Students of Government
Schools With Hearing Disabilities.
 Nature of RESEARCH
Sample Research Titles:

Gaming as an Instructional Strategy: Its

Effect on the Enhancement of Learning
for Baccalaureate Education Students
 Nature of RESEARCH
Sample Research Titles:

Language Teachers’ Use of Audio-lingual

and Grammar-translation Methods of
Foreign of Language Arts.
 Nature of RESEARCH
Sample Research Titles:

Mnemonic Devices: Their Effect on the

Academic Performance of Students with
Learning Difficulties
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Review of literature involves the systematic identification, location,

and analysis of documents containing information related to the
research problem.

It is the process of collecting, selecting, and reading books,

journal articles, reports, abstracts, and other reference
materials,including electronic sources about the problem
under investigation.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Referring to various sources, the following information may be
collected:
 Background information about the problem and
related concepts.
 Theories that explain the existence of the problem
and the possible connection between certain factors and the
problem.
 Data that confirm
problem. the existence and seriousness
 to
Generalthe and specific findings of studies related to the
problem.
 Recommendations for further study given in related studies.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
1. The Need for a Review of Literature and Studies
A review of literature and studies is a must in research. It aids
the researcher in many ways:

a. It helps the researcher identify and define a research problem. A

new problem may arise from research problem. A new problem may
arise from vague results, conflicting findings, or the inability of study
variables to adequately explain the existence of the problem.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
1. The Need for a Review of Literature and Studies
A review of literature and studies is a must in research. It aids
the researcher in many ways:

b. It helps justify the need for studying a problem. When findings of

related studies are not clear or do not provide adequate/conclusive
answers to certain issues or questions, then the conduct of a study is
justified.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
1. The Need for a Review of Literature and Studies
A review of literature and studies is a must in research. It aids
the researcher in many ways:

c. It helps prevent unnecessary duplication of a study. There are

many research problems that are already “over studied: and yet,
similar studies are still being conducted. If a researcher has
adequately reviewed related literature about his/her study,
unnecessary duplication can be avoided.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
1. The Need for a Review of Literature and Studies
A review of literature and studies is a must in research. It aids
the researcher in many ways:

d. It can be a source of theoretical basis for the study. Correlation

studies usually use or generate theories to explain the research
phenomenon under study. Researchers may use or adopt the same
theory of theoretical framework used in the related studies.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
1. The Need for a Review of Literature and Studies
A review of literature and studies is a must in research. It aids
the researcher in many ways:

e. It enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research

problem and properly identify and operationally define study
variables.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
1. The Need for a Review of Literature and Studies
A review of literature and studies is a must in research. It aids
the researcher in many ways:

f. It provides a basis for identifying and using appropriate research

design. It also helps in the formulation or refinement of research
instrument.

g. Results of related studies provide lessons for data analysis and

interpretation. Findings of a study can be compared to findings of
related studies.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
2. Functions of a Review
Specifically, the review seeks to:

a. Determine what has been done already;

b. Provide insights necessary to develop a logical
framework into which the topic fits;
c. Provide the rationale for the hypotheses being investigated and
the justification of the significance of the study;
d. Identify potentially useful methodological strategies; and
e. Facilitate the interpretation of the results.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
3. General guidelines for the scope of the review
When considering the scope of one’s review, the
researcher should be reminded of the following guidelines:

a. Bigger does not mean better.

b. Heavily researched topics provide enough references to focus
only on the major studies.
c. Lesser researched topics require reviewing any study related in
some meaningful way even if this means searching related
fields.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
4. Stages of conducting a review
The review of literature and studies often follow certain stages:

a. Identifying words to guide the search. It is important to

experiment with several keywords and combinations of them.
“Legal” key words used for particular data bases like the ERIC
Thesaurus which can be accessed through the ERIC homepage.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
4. Stages of conducting a review
The review of literature and studies often follow certain stages:

b. Identifying sources. This may be classified as primary and

secondary or empirical and opinion. It is important to use secondary
sources such as handbooks, encyclopedias, and reviews early in the
review process because they broaden and narrow keyword searches.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
4. Stages of conducting a review
The review of literature and studies often follow certain stages:
c. Abstracting the information found in the references. To
summarize references, there are seven steps suggested:
1. Read the article abstract;
2. Skim the entire article;
3. Record complete bibliographic information;
4. Classify and code the article;
5. Summarize the article;
6. Identify thoughts about the article you believe important and
7. Indicate direct quotes properly.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
4. Stages of conducting a review
The review of literature and studies often follow certain stages:
c. Abstracting the information found in the references

1. Begin with the most recent references and move toward the most
dated;
2. Record all bibliographic information such as author, date of
publication, title, journal name or book title or website name,
volume and issue, pages, library call number or URL;
3. Identify direct quotes and record page numbers;
4. Identify main ideas.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
4. Stages of conducting a review
The review of literature and studies often follow certain stages:
c. Analyzing, organizing and reporting

This is the time to make important decisions

following: the
regarding the outline review, and the technical
reporting which includes the natureof formal
use of
language and
adherence to prescribe style (e.g., APA)
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
B. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
4. Stages of conducting a review
The review of literature and studies often follow certain stages:
c. Analyzing, organizing and reporting

The review may be grouped by topics, analyzed for similarities and

differences within subheadings and discussed from the most relevant
studies, to the least relevant studies. It must include a discussion on
the implication related to the research problem.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
C. PARTS OF THE REVIEW
1. Introduction

The introduction briefly describes the nature of the researcher

problem and explains what led the researcher to investigate the
question. The summary presents the main topics covered in the
literature review section.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
C. PARTS OF THE REVIEW
2. Body

The body of the review briefly reports what experts think or what
other researchers have found about the research problem. Studies
done on one key element or factor of the research problem are
reviewed under that topic followed by studies done on other aspects
of the problem. The common findings of several studies are
summarized in one or two sentences and only when necessary, some
specific findings of each study may be presented.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
C. PARTS OF THE REVIEW
3. Summary/Synthesis

The summary/synthesis of the literature review “ties together” the

major findings of the studies reviewed. It presents a general picture
of what has been known or thought of about the problem to date. It
points out similar results, as well as conflicting findings.
 CONCEPTUALIZATION OF
RESEARCH
C. PARTS OF THE REVIEW
4. Conclusion

This part presents the course of action suggested by the literature.

Based on the state of knowledge revealed by the literature, the
researcher could further justify the need for his/her study.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

A. RESEARCH PLAN
1. The Necessity of a Research Plan
A research plan is detailed description of the procedures that will be
used to investigate your topic or problem. It is a justification for the
hypothesis or exploration of the research problem. It is a detailed
presentation of the steps to be followed in conducting the study.
A research plan forces the researcher to think through every aspect
of the study. It facilitates the evaluation of the proposed study and
provides detailed procedures to guide the conduct of the study.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

A. RESEARCH PLAN
2. Qualitative Research Plan
Qualitative characterized by open-ended,
studies are plans must be responsive to the context
emergent designs. Research
and setting as well as the flexibility of the design. Prior fieldwork
influences the research plan of qualitative studies.

The authors recommend pre-proposal fieldwork to help

understand the socio-cultural context of the setting. Alternatives
include drawing on one’s own experiences or the literature.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

A. RESEARCH PLAN
2. General to Consider When Developing a
Issues Research
Plan

There are three important issues to consider in a research plan:

Ethics of research, general considerations and legal restrictions.

The five ethical principles are: a) Beneficence and non-

malfeasance, b) fidelity and responsibility, c) integrity and e) respect
for people’s rights and dignity.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

B. VARIABLES
1. Definition of Variables

A variable is a concept that stands for a variation within a

class of objects or persons. It is a characteristic or property that can
take different values or attributes. Variables are the basic elements
which are measured in a study. They are observable and measurable.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

B. VARIABLES
1. Definition of Variables

The operational definition gives a specific meaning to the variable

. The definition clarifies how a variable or term is used and
measured in the study. A. variable must be defined in terms of
events/units of measurement that are observable by the senses.
These events/units of measurement serve as indicators of the
variable.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

B. VARIABLES
2. Types of Variables

a. Dependent Variable. The “assumed effect” of another

variable. It is the change that occurs in the study population when
one or more factors are changed or when an intervention is
introduced. Usually dependent variable is the problem itself.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

B. VARIABLES
2. Types of Variables

b. Independent Variable. The “assumed cause” of a problem. It

is assumed reason for any “change” or variation in a dependent
variable. An independent variable is sometimes treated as
“antecedent” variable (the variable before). Likewise, an
“antecedent” variable may be treated as an “independent” variable.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

B. VARIABLES
2. Types of Variables

c. Intervening Variable. A factor that works “between” the

independent variables. It can weaken (decrease) or strengthen
(increase) the effect of the independent on the dependent variables.
It is also called a “facilitating variable,” “moderator” or a “control
variable”
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
1. Defining a hypothesis

A hypothesis is defined as an educated guess or a tentative answer

to a question. It is a statement about an expected relationship
between two or more variables that can be empirically tested.

It is a researcher’s tentative prediction of the results of the

research formulated on the basis of knowledge of the underlying
theory or implications from the literature review. Testing a
hypothesis leads to support of the hypothesis or lack thereof.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
2. Two views of hypothesis

a. Inductive. A generalization made from number of

a observations. It is typical of qualitative
studies.
b. Deductive. Derived from theory and aimed at providing
evidence to support, expand, or contradict aspects of that theory.
It is typical or quantitative studies.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
3. Functions of a hypothesis

a. A single might state that an independent

variable is associated with a dependent variable.
hypothesis

b. Sometimes a hypothesis specifies that, under certain conditions

(x, y, and z), variable A is associated with or can influence
variable B.

c. Some hypotheses may state that a particular characteristic of a

person or object varies according to another variable.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis

Hypotheses can be classified either as null or alternative hypothesis,

directional or non-directional hypothesis, and quantitative or
qualitative hypothesis.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis
a. Null vs. Alternative Hypothesis

A null hypothesis is a negative statement which indicates the

absence of a relationship/correlation between two variables, an
absence of a significant difference between the proportions of two
groups of people or objects possessing a particular characteristic or
an absence of difference between or among the means of two or
more groups with respect to a particular variable.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis
a. Null vs. Alternative Hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis, also the research of
hypothesis. It may state the called a significant and
relationship between the presence dependent
independent
variables, or the presence of a significant difference between two
means or two proportions.

A null hypothesis is a statistical statement that states that no

statistically significant relationship or difference exists between
variables.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis
b. Directional vs Non-directional Hypotheses

A directional hypothesis states whether the relationship between

two variables is direct or inverse or positive or negative. A positive
or direct relationship is present when the value of one variable
increases with the increase in the value of another. The relationship
is negative when the value of one variable increases as the value of
another decreases.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH
C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis
b. Directional vs Non-directional Hypotheses

Directional hypothesis is a statement of the expected direction of

the relationship or difference between variables
Non-Directional is a statement that no relationship or
difference exists between the variables.
Non-directional hypothesis does not specify the direction of
relationship between variables. It merely states the presence or
absence of a relationship between two variables or that one variable
influences another, or there is a significant difference in the mean
values of the two variables.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis
b. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Hypothesis

A good quantitative hypothesis is based on sound reasoning.

It provides a reasonable explanation for outcome. the predicted
It clearly and concisely states relationships the
between variables. It is testable. expected
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis
MATRIX OF SAMPLE HYPOTHESIS
Types of Independent Variables
Types of Hypotheses
Qualitative (Categorical) Quantitative (Continuous)

Directional Group differences exist; one Either a positive or negative

group expected to perform relationship will exist.
better than the other groups (2). Example: Higher scores on A
Example: Group A will do are associated with higher
better than Group B. scores on B.
Example: Higher scores on A
are associated with lower
scores on B
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis
MATRIX OF SAMPLE HYPOTHESIS
Types of Independent Variables
Types of Hypotheses
Qualitative (Categorical) Quantitative (Continuous)

Non-Directional Group differences exist; but it is Relationship will exist, but it is

not clear which group will do not clear if it will be positive or
better. negative.
Example: There will be a Example: Variable A
difference between groups A associated with variable B.
and B
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
4. Types of hypothesis
MATRIX OF SAMPLE HYPOTHESIS

Types of Independent Variables

Types of Hypotheses
Qualitative (Categorical) Quantitative (Continuous)

Null No difference expected; groups No relationship expected.

will do the same. Example: Example: Variable A is not
There is no difference between associated with variable B.
groups A and B.
 COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

C. HYPOTHESIS
5. How to Write Hypothesis

In writing hypotheses, one must remember the following:

a. Hypothesis, must be written in simple understandable language.

b. Hypothesis must focus on the variables. One must keep in mind

the distinction between independent and dependent variables.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research is heuristic and not deductive, since decisions

about research questions or data are made before the study begins
based on observations and not focus on a hypothesis based in
existing theory like ethnographic methodologies.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research may be utilized in language research when the

researcher is concerned with ‘discovering and describing language
acquisition’ in the natural situation where it cannot be predicted
specifically how an activity will affect certain linguistic behavior.
The ultimate goal, therefore, is to discover patterns of language
behavior not yet explained such that behavior is understood from the
perspectives of the language.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research

Researchers engaged in qualitative research are participant –

observers themselves. They participate and record their observations
and experiences in diaries while participating in the very act they are
describing. In some cases, the study involves non-participant
observation. The researcher records his observations of the linguistic
events, but without the use of a questionnaire or other research tools
(Long 1983). It aims to ‘reconstruct’ accurately what the language
issues from the perspective of the subjects themselves.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research

Researchers engaged in qualitative research are participant –

observers themselves. They participate and record their observations
and experiences in diaries while participating in the very act they are
describing. In some cases, the study involves non-participant
observation. The researcher records his observations of the linguistic
events, but without the use of a questionnaire or other research tools
(Long 1983). It aims to ‘reconstruct’ accurately what the language
issues from the perspective of the subjects themselves.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research

Qualitative Methods are useful, not only in providing rich

descriptions of complex phenomena, but in constructing or
developing theories or conceptual frameworks, and in generating
hypotheses to explain those phenomena.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research

Main Types of Qualitative Research

Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in- depth a
single case example of the phenomena. The case can be an
Case Study individual person, an event, a group, or an institution.

Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data

Grounded Theory
acquired by a participant-observer.

Describes the structures of experience as they present

Phenomenology themselves to consciousness, without recourse to theory,
deduction, or assumptions from other disciplines.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research

Main Types of Qualitative Research

Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field

Ethnography observation of socio cultural phenomena. Typically, the
ethnographer focuses on a community.

Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related

to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning
Historical causes, effects, or trends of these events that may help to
explain present events and anticipate future events. (Gay,
1996)
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research
Using Qualitative Research for Hypothesis Testing
Typical Methods of Qualitative Research

 Naturalistic inquiry, or ethnography, rootsin

has its anthropology and sociology long-term
exposure
and to a setting or a group of people. It is used when
involves
situations are unique or complex, when the level of uncertainty
about the questions to ask is high and when there is a little or no
theory to direct the investigator,
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research
Using Qualitative Research for Hypothesis Testing
Typical Methods of Qualitative Research

 Case studies copes with the technically distinctive situation in

which there will be many more variables of interest than data
points, and as one result relies on multiple sources of evidence,
with data needing to converge in triangulating fashion. The
case study approach can involve a single event or multiple cases
and can be short or long term.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research
Using Qualitative Research for Hypothesis Testing
Typical Methods of Qualitative Research
 Structured Observations of involves
meetings.
attending meetings of theThisgroup that you wish to research on.
This can also be extended to observation of individuals in their
daily work routine or on special tasks. The purpose of observing
is to learn what is going on at the meeting and witness the group
dynamic in process. This can be a rich information source as it
can give researchers insight into the group.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research
Using Qualitative Research for Hypothesis Testing
Typical Methods of Qualitative Research

 Content analysis of documents. This is a non-intrusive

form of research. This involves reviewing documents, memos or
other pieces of written information for content and themes. By
examining written word, the researcher is studying one type of
communication that occurs in the selected sample.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research
Using Qualitative Research for Hypothesis Testing
Typical Methods of Qualitative Research

 Collection and analysis of other archival administrative

and performance data. This method also is non-intrusive.
Information that has been previously collected, or
secondary data, are reviewed to gain a better
understanding into the topic. This information is part of the
organization’s history and can be a valuable key to understanding
the past.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research
Using Qualitative Research for Hypothesis Testing
Typical Methods of Qualitative Research

 Focus groups usually explore specific issues. Focus

groups, unlike individual interviews, added
dimension
provide theof the interactions among members. It is often
combined with more quantitative approaches such as surveys that
can be administered at different points in the group discussion
and even used as grist for additional discussion.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Qualitative Research
Using Qualitative Research for Hypothesis Testing
Typical Methods of Qualitative Research

 Cognitive Interviews are typically in survey

development.
used One-on-one interviews are conducted as the
individuals complete the instrument of being tested. This method
helps the investigators understand how people perceive and
interpret language and their own experiences as they refine the
survey intruments.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. Process of Conducting Qualitative Research

a. Define the phenomenon or problem situation of language to

be described.
At the beginning of the study, the focus of the research situation
may not be definite, however, as the investigation progresses,
narrowing the scope of the observations as regards what specific
areas of the language activity to be studied is essential.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
2. Process of Conducting Qualitative Research

b. Use qualitative methods to gather data.

Data collection may range from observations, tapes, questionnaires,

interviews, case histories, and field notes. The variety of sources of
data provides insights not available in an experimental method.
Moreover, it facilitates “validation and triangulation” of data.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
2. Process of Conducting Qualitative Research

d. Validate initial conclusions by returning to the data

or collecting more data.
Once pattern have been established, the researcher must verify the
findings through triangulation, i.e. confirming the findings by re-
inspection or demonstrating the same findings through different
sources. Replication of the study will show whether there are
variables in the initial investigation that might have caused the
language learning behavior different from what it would be if not
studied.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
A. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
2. Process of Conducting Qualitative Research

e. Return to step 1 and repeat the cycle to redefine the area of

focus based on the first cycle.

Although the data have been analyzed in the initial stage, it is still
important ‘to redefine’ and to gradually narrow down the focus of
the study. This can be done by re-examining the data or collecting
additional data utilizing the same methods but ‘more focused
methods.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
1. Scope of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research, on the other hand, can be heuristic or

deductive. The investigation employs existing data or non-
experimental research with a preconceived hypothesis. The
researchers begin with a specific focus or general and specific
questions regarding the problem-situation to be studied.

In summary, descriptive methods when used in language research

provide information and insights related to language development
which may serve as bases for drawing essential universal
conclusions about language acquisition and learning.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
2. Uses of Descriptive Research

Should a researcher be interested in describing in detail the language

performance in particular grammatical forms of an individual, a case
study is most appropriate.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
3. Tools in Descriptive Research
To collect data in descriptive research, Seliger and
Sholamy suggest the following tools:

a. Surveys and questionnaires are useful tools to gather data from

a large group of respondents. The questions may vary depending on
the relevance of the data to the study goals. It is also important that
the variables of the study should be evident in the content of the
questionnaire.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
3. Tools in Descriptive Research
To collect data in descriptive research, Seliger and
Sholamy suggest the following tools:

b. Self-reports and questionnaires are utilized to describe the

‘language status’ of the learner during the period of language
learning situations. Since the study is based on preconceived
hypothesis, only identified data may be selected.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
3. Tools in Descriptive Research
To collect data in descriptive research, Seliger and
Sholamy suggest the following tools:

c. Language Tests may take in the forms of writing assignments or

communicative classroom activities. These activities are carefully
planned to elicit specific data such as the learner’s proficiency to
use wh-questions or any identified language forms. Standardized
tests may also be used.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
3. Tools in Descriptive Research
To collect data in descriptive research, Seliger and
Sholamy suggest the following tools:

d. Observations are used normally to gather data already identified

before the investigation begins. However, the collection of data
should be well-planned, including the design of the observation
instrument, to ensure the reliability of the observations.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
4. Steps in conducting Descriptive Research

1. Identify the specific problem which you want to describe;

2. Be definite on the size of the respondents of the study;
for case studies one or two will do;
3. Decide on method/s of data gathering based on the types of
data to be elicited;
4. Gather data, utilizing the field –tested instrument
chosen; lastly
5. Organize and analyze the data from which
conclusions may be drawn.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
1. Scope of Experimental Research
 The experimental research must always be analytic.
 The experimental method is the only resign design that can truly
test hypothesis concerning cause and effect relationship since
investigation is rigorous, intensive and exacting.
 The experimental method also involves a more thorough analysis
of variable factors
 This type of research also involves manipulation of and control of
variables, specifically the independent variables, to measure both
internal and external validity.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
1. Scope of Experimental Research

Control refers to the efforts of the researcher to get rid of the

influence of any variable other than the independent variable which
might influence the performance of the dependent variable. It is
important since the purpose of the research is to determine which
treatment is most effective in the language learning performance of
the learners.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
2. Major Components of Experimental Research

a. The population. An experiment research involves two

groups: an experimental group and a control group. The
experimental group receives treatment under investigation – as in
receiving multiple intelligences – based instructional approach –
and the control group receives another treatment or the usual
approach used by the language teacher.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
2. Major Components of Experimental Research

b. The Treatment. This refers to the independent variable in the

research, such as the exposure of the experimental group to the MI-
based instructional approach to determine its effect on the
language achievement of the students. The effect of the manipulation
of the independent variable on the dependent variable (language
achievement) is observed or measured.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
2. Major Components of Experimental Research
c. Measurement or observation may be done by means of a
language test or communicative tasks.

Campbell and Stanley (1963) established the following components

of experimental designs where:

X – represents an experimental treatment, e.g. exposing a group

of students to instructional materials designed applying
metacognitive strategies,
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
2. Major Components of Experimental Research
c. Measurement or observation may be done by means of a
language test or communicative tasks.

O – symbolizing the observation or the effects of the treatment being

measured in relation to the language achievement of the students

R - refers to the random grouping of the respondents

 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
a. Single Group Designs
 One-spot Case Study: X= treatment; O = observation

This research design is considered a pilot study

or pre- experimental design, in which one group receives
a treatment
(X) and then observed and given a post test (O). The defect of this
design is it is devoid of control over the variables involved.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
a. Single Group Designs
 One-spot Case Study: X= treatment; O = observation

Example: A second language teacher employs a task-based approach

in enhancing the English proficiency of the learners. After a month
of exposing the subjects to the approach, a post-test is administered
to the students. The results reveal that the learners perform well.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
a. Single Group Designs
 One-Group Pre-test – Post – test Design:
O1=; X = treatment; O2
This design is preferred than the single –spot case study design. The
group is exposed to a certain experimental treatment, but before the
start of the study, the group is given a post-test. It involves only
one group, so it does not need to be compared or matched to another
group. Subjects are observed, or tested twice on the dependent
stimuli.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
a. Single Group Designs
 One-Group Pre-test – Post – test Design:
O1=; X = treatment; O2
Example: A language instructor would like to determine the grammatical
knowledge and fluency of the students on embedding sentences into word,
phrase, and clause modifiers which becomes the experimental factor. Thus,
the teacher gives the group a pre-test for the target grammatical structure which
serves as a ‘base line norm’ of the extent of the respondents’ knowledge on the
structure being measured. After the instruction or the treatment is given, a post-
test is administered to the same group of students.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
a. Single Group Designs
 Time-Series Designs
Respondents are subjected to a series a of
measurements before and after observations
procedure allows the researcher treatment to and any isevents,
administered.
such as
incidental exposure to a language outside
This the classroom
instruction, that occur between the series of measurements over an extended
disregard
period of time, The researcher establishes a normal pattern of change emerging
mateweeks.
from the series of measurements spaced over several
rial
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
a. Single Group Designs
 Time-Series Designs
Example: To investigate the efficacy of the instruction in relation to the learners’ accuracy and
fluency on the correct form and usage of the three degrees of comparison of adjectives and
adverbs, a treatment consisting of lessons on the subject of the study designed. Before the
treatment, the learners are given series of writing descriptive paragraph exercises in which
students’ usage of the language forms is tallied and measured. Likewise, after the treatment the
same group of learners are given writing assignments on descriptive paragraphs and their usage
of adjectives and adverbs are observed and measured. Any noticeable difference the observation
prior to the treatment is ascribed definitely to result from the treatment.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
b. Control Group Designs
 The Static-Group Comparison

This design in which a group which has experienced treatment is

compared with a group which has not received treatment, for the
purpose of determining the effect of the X (treatment).
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
b. Control Group Designs
 The Pretest-Posttest Control Group

This design involves two groups formed by randomization. This

procedure allows a better control of the variables that may influence the internal
validity. Randomization of subjects distribute the effect of extraneous variables
equally to both group, particularly if the subject population is large. Both
groups are pretested and posttested, but only one group receives the
experimental treatment. The second group representing the control group
prevents the treats to internal validity. Selection is taken care by
randomization.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
c. Factorial Designs

Factorial means that two or more independent variables are being

investigated. Factorial designs allow the researcher to measure the
main effect of each independent variable on the dependent variable
as well as the interaction effects of these independent variables.

The pretest establishes the level of the subjects’ proficiency before

they were exposed to the experimental task.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
d. Quasi-experimental Designs

The design is considered quasi-experimental since there is

difficulty in controlling variables. These designs involve just one
group, pretested and posttested four times. The multi- testing
prevents the incidence of maturation, testing, ang regression as
threats to internal validity.
 RESEARCH
DESIGN
C. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
3. Categories of Experimental Research
d. Quasi-experimental Designs

Quasi-experimental research is best appropriate for pilot studies and

classroom based research because it is designed under conditions
familiar to the existing situations on real language classroom setting,
thus it is met with less resistance by language teacher.

See for Language Research samples from pp. 68-76

 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
1. Data Collection by Observations

The use of observation as a tool in gathering data has gained

increasingly in classroom-based research studying second language
learning and teaching processes. It is aimed at investigating
classroom situations and learners and teachers’ behaviors toward a
language phenomenon. An example is establishing the frequency
and types of intrasentential and intersentential code switching among
students and teachers.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
1. Data Collection by Observations

Observations may be structured or unstructured. It is said to be

structured if the researcher has pre-determined what data he/she
wishes to look for in the research situation like classroom interaction
analysis. Data are obtained using a checklist, numerical scales and
rating scales. On the other hand, open observations are considered
unstructured since the researcher records all behaviors happening
simultaneously, without establishing specifically in advance what
aspects of the language behavior will be observed.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
2. Data Collection through Interviews

Interviews are used to gather data about the language

learners’ attitude and motivation for learning the target
language. Researchers have also employed interviews in determining
learners’ strategies in acquiring and learning a second language in
different situations.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
2. Data Collection through Interviews

In summary, the nature of the interview will determine the data

obtained which in turn will dictate the procedure for analyzing the
data. Data collection through interviews may yield higher response
rate, greater chance to evaluate validity of reports; minimal instance
of questions without response, and opportunity for more in-depth
probing of phenomenon being investigated.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
3. Data Collection through Verbal Reports
Verbal reporting may be elicited through thinking
aloud, introspection, and retrospection.

Thinking aloud yields rich information kept in short term memory

while learners are engaged in a particular language task since they
are instructed to say aloud everything they think. (Hayes and Flower
1980)
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
3. Data Collection through Verbal Reports
Verbal reporting may be elicited through thinking
aloud, introspection, and retrospection.

Introspection requires the learners to observe and report how their

minds work while performing a particular task.

Retrospection investigates thoroughly the subjects for information

after they have performed a particular language task. The learners
are asked to describe their cognitive strategies and mind processes
while they were performing the task.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
4. Data Collection through Questionnaires

Questionnaires consist of pre-arranged questions requiring written

responses from the respondents of the study. This procedure is
usually used with interviews and other procedures to collect data on
behavior not easily observed and to establish background
information about respondents’ language learning.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
4. Data Collection through Questionnaires

Open Questionnaires will elicit more descriptive responses like

essays and narratives. The structured questionnaires require
respondents to mark responses or to select from among a number of
choices. However, it is possible to combine open and closed types of
questions in the instrument.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
4. Data Collection through Questionnaires
To facilitate collection using questionnaire, Catane (2000) suggests that
the questionnaire includes the following:

1. The purpose of the study – for what reason the data obtained will be used.
2. Statement affording protection to the
confidentiality of the respondents’ responses.
3. Endorsement of the institution behind the research
4. Legitimacy of the researcher by identifying his name and position
5. Request for cooperation
6. Specific instructions on how the responses to the
question may be marked or answered.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
5. Data Collection through Tests

Test are generally used to gather data regarding the respondent’s lexical,
semantic and grammatical knowledge and proficiency focusing on the features
and usage of the second language.

Like other data collection procedures, language tests vary depending on the
degree of explicitness.

It is also important to consider that in choosing and adapting an instrument,

revisions to be made in existing standardized tests should change the principles
or theory from which the measurement is based.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
B. STAGE OF DATA COLLECTION
Developing instruments for data collection entails 6 stages:

1. Operationalizing abstract variables into concrete

and measurable ones;
2. Identifying variables which can be quantified and interpreted based on
current language theories;
3. Choosing data collection procedures suitable to the type of data to be
measured;
4. Putting together items and tasks to be administered
to the respondents;
5. Pilot testing and trying out the instrument for
revision and
improvement; and
6. Removing and modifying items to suit the time
period of the administration of the instrument and using
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
C. DATA
ANALYSIS

Descriptive research generally uses different types

of
descriptive
average, statistics:
variability. Descriptive statistics central
frequencies, providestendencies
insights andor
information on how language elements like structures, lexicon, and
speech acts are commonly used by varied learners in different
contexts, and the relationship of the different aspects of the data.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
C. DATA
ANALYSIS

Frequencies (f) indicate the number of occurrences of a language

phenomenon, as well as provide meaningful information and initial
insights/impressions, and better understanding of the learners’
proficiency on the language elements which are the focus of the
study. Data may be presented on a frequency table, graph, or
crossbreak table.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
C. DATA
ANALYSIS

Measures of Central tendencies include the mean, mode and

median. Thesemeasures provide information about the
average and typical behaviorof the language learners as
regards the linguistic elements being investigated. The mean Refers
to the measure obtained by adding all scores which
occur most frequently in the large group of respondents. The
median is the score which divides the population into two in
which half of the scores are above and half are below it.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
C. DATA
ANALYSIS

Measures of variability provide information on the dispersion of

the behaviors among the population of the study. The most
commonly used is standard deviation (S.D) which refers to the
deviation of scores from the mean . Specifically, it is ‘the square
root of the average square distance of the scores from the mean’.
Another measure of variability is the variance which is a measure of
dispersion of the set of scores and which is used in analyzing data
from experimental and multivariate research.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
C. DATA
ANALYSIS

The t-test analysis is the comparison of the means of two groups

of two groups of respondents. It helps the researcher establish
whether or not the difference between the two groups samples, and
that the results of the treatment oare not merely due to chance.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
C. DATA
ANALYSIS

One way analysis of variance examines the differences in more

than two groups and it results in an F value which indicates the
level of significance of the differences between the two groups. A
significant F occurs when the variability among the groups is greater
than the variability among or between the groups, the F value is
insignificant.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
C. DATA
ANALYSIS

Chi-Square data analysis procedure is used to test significant

differences between a set of expected values and a set of values
observed in a sample. This technique is widely used in analyzing
data in second language (L2) acquisition studies, since many issues
in L2 acquisition investigation of frequencies of particular language
behaviors by varied types of L2 learners in different context.
 DOCUMENTATION OF A RESEARCH
INITIAL PAGES

* Title Page
* Approval Sheet
* Acknowledgement
* Dedication
* Table of Contents
* List of Tables
* List of Figures
 DOCUMENTATION OF A RESEARCH

TITLE PAGE
The following information needs to be on the title page:

*The title (and possibly the subtitle) of your research

paper
* First name and surname of the author(s)
* Faculty and department
* Place and date of completion
 DOCUMENTATION OF A RESEARCH

APPROVAL SHEET
*This is to prove that the authors have passed the
requirements needed for the research paper.
*This is signed by the research instructor, panel and the
Dean.
* This also states the grade obtained by the author/s.
 DOCUMENTATION OF A RESEARCH

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

* This is a page focused on expressing gratitude to

organizations, agencies or individuals who, in one way or
another, have aided the researchers in finishing the research
paper.
 DOCUMENTATION OF A RESEARCH

DEDICATION

* This is a page for dedicating the research paper to certain

people or groups who have inspired the researchers while
doing the research paper.
 DOCUMENTATION OF A RESEARCH

TABLE OF CONTENTS

*The table of contents is essentially a topic outline of the

research.

*It is compiled by listing the headings in the research

paper down to whichever level you choose.
 DOCUMENTATION OF A RESEARCH

LIST OF TABLES/LIST OF FIGURES

*Include a list of figures (illustrations) and a list of tables if

you have one or more items in these categories.

* Use a separate page for each list.

*List the number, caption, and page number of every figure

and table in the body of the research paper.
 DOCUMENTATION OF A RESEARCH
TITLE OF CHAPTERS

* Problem and Its Background

* Review of Related Literature and Studies

* Methodology of the Study

* Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

* Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
 LANGUAGE
RESEARCH

CHAPTER 1
The Problem and Its Setting
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1.Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:

a. Introduction. This provides general information about the topic

chosen, its role or importance in society and discusses the reason
why the researcher became interested in the study.

For example. If the study pertains to Social and Cultural

Implications of Name-Calling in the name-calling practices of
Filipinos where, when and how they originated, and why was the
writer interested in the phenomenon.
(Refer to Sample Researches in Module VI for examples of introduction)
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:

b. Setting of the Study. It specifically gives information

regarding the location of the study, which may include the country,
the province, the city, or the institution where the study was
conducted.

For example, refer to page 109

 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:

d. Statement of the Problem. It is usually stated in one broad

statement followed by specific questions that relate to the problem.

For example, refer to page 110

 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1.Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:
d. Statement of the Problem. Answers to the questions when
put together provide answer to the general problem.
 Begin with a broad statement expressing
the general concern of the study.
 Ask a series of three or more questions
related to the general problem.
 Arrange questions in logical order.
 Avoid yes/no questions.

(Refer to Sample Researches in Module VI

 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:
e. Assumption of the Study. Some extraneous factors in the
study are beyond the control of researcher. He/She can only assume
that his/her study was conducted under required conditions.

For example, he/she has to assume that the questionnaires were

answered honestly and that the records provided by certain sources
are true and accurate.

(Refer to the Sample in page 112

 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:

f. Hypotheses. These are statements drawn

regarding the outcome of the study before the
conclusion is reached.

For example, the researcher might state that there is no significant

difference in the perceptions of respondents regarding the social and
cultural implications of their name- calling practices. The statement
is usually given in the null or negative form.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:

g. Significance of the Study. The researcher must justify his/her

choice of problem by showing its practical importance especially to
the intended readers of the study.

What benefit for example, will society derive from a study on

name-calling practices in the Philippines.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:

h. Scope/Delimitation and Limitations of the Study. It

states that what the study covers and fix its boundaries. Limitations
specify certain constraints in the study which are essential, but which
the researcher may state that his/her study is concerned only with
the name-calling practices among Filipinos (scope) in a rural
community (delimitation). It will not include Filipinos in an urban
community (limitation).
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:

h. Scope/Delimitation and Limitations of the Study. It

states that what the study covers and fix its boundaries. Limitations
specify certain constraints in the study which are essential, but which
the researcher may state that his/her study is concerned only with
the name-calling practices among Filipinos (scope) in a rural
community (delimitation). It will not include Filipinos in an urban
community (limitation).
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
1. Chapter 1 describes the problem and its setting and is
subdivided into the following headings:

i. Definition of Terms. It is necessary to clarify terms used in the

study by defining them contextually or operationally. It may also
include newly invented or coined words, technical terms, or terms
with special meaning.
 LANGUAGE
RESEARCH

CHAPTER 2
Review of Related Literature
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
2.Chapter 2 contains review of related literature and studies
which is divided into the following sub-sections:

a. Local Literature. This includes books, magazines, newspapers, journal

articles written by local authors.
b. Foreign Literature. This includes the same type of materials in the local
literature but written by foreign authors.
c. Local Studies. These are studies that refer to graduate and undergraduate
these or dissertations. Those written by local authors are classified as local
literature; those by foreign authors are foreign studies.
d. Foreign Studies. The are the same as local studies except that they are
done by foreign researchers.
 LANGUAGE
RESEARCH

CHAPTER 3
Methods and Procedure
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
3.Chapter 3 explains the methods and procedure which
contain the following:

a. Method of Research. This specifies the research methodology of the

study, explains how the method will be used and how it will be applied in
the study. Most language researches use descriptive, experimental or
correlational method.

A description of a language proficiency of a particular group is descriptive;

testing the effectiveness of a teaching strategy in language is experimental;
showing the relationship of academic grades in English with board examination
ratings is correlational.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
3. Chapter 3 explains the methods and procedure which
contain the following:

c. Sampling Technique. This is important when the total population is big

and the researcher decides to use only a representative group for practical
reasons. The common types of sampling techniques are random, purposive,
and stratified. Using odd numbers in the list of students to choose the
respondents is a random sampling technique. Setting specific criteria such as
academic grades, age, nationality, etc. for selecting the respondents is
purposive. Getting a proportional number to represent specific groups like
year level, regional classification, etc. is stratified sampling.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
3. Chapter 3 explains the methods and procedure which
contain the following:

d. Procedure of Data Gathering. This explains the sources of

data. If different instruments were used in collecting data, the study
should describe how they were utilized. For instance, a survey
study using a questionnaire should state whether it is an adapted or
an original instrument. Either way, the researcher should describe
how it was adapted or constructed and validated.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
3. Chapter 3 explains the methods and procedure which
contain the following:

e. Statistical Treatment of Data. This enumerates the

formulas used for interpreting the data and explains why they
are necessary. It also includes the scale and verbal
interpretation of scores. If professional help was sought in
statistical processing of data, the name of the office or agency or
person taking charge of it should be mentioned.
 LANGUAGE
RESEARCH

CHAPTER 4
Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of
Data
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT

4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data

arranged in the same order as the specific questions in the statement
of the problem in Chapter 1. This is the part of the study where
tables are often constructed to help clarify or simplify the
presentation specifically if the data consist of a large number of
statistical and numerical items.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
 How to phrase a Table Heading
a. A table heading is generally expressed in phrase or clause form.
It should be short and simple.

Examples:
Table 1: Percentage and Frequency Distribution of Students by
School/College (Redundant)

Table 2: Classification of Students by School/College

(Preferable)
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
 How to phrase a Table Heading

b. Table headings should follow a logical order. Demographic tables

are presented first, followed by non-demographic items in the
questionnaire.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
 How to phrase a Table Heading

c. Headings should be expressed in parallel forms. Parallelism is the

deliberate use of similar grammatical elements in similar
constructions to ensure consistency of expression.

Examples: (Parallel)
Table 3: Students’ Attitude towards the English Subject as
Perceived by their Teachers
Table 4: Students’ Attitude towards the English Language as
Perceived by their Teachers
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
 How to phrase a Table Heading

Examples: (Non-Parallel)
Table 3: Students’ Reading Proficiency based on their English
Proficiency Test
Table 4: The Students’ Proficiency in Grammar According to
their English Proficiency Test
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data

 How to Phrase a Body Entry

The same rules that apply to phrasing a table heading also apply to
body entries, except that in the body, items may be expressed in
complete sentences. Entries in the body should also follow a logical
order and should be expressed in parallel form.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
 How to Format Tables

a. Spacing. Tables placed within the text should be spaced 3

spaces above the last line of the paragraph and 2 spaces before
the next line. Table numbers should be separated from titles with a
double space. Titles should be separated from the first line of the
table also with a double space. Titles of two or more lines should
be single-spaced.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
 How to Format Tables

b. Capitalization. Titles of tables should capitalize all

important words. Unimportant words such as articles,
coordinate conjunctions, prepositions such as, and, in and to,
in an infinitive should NOT be capitalized. Headings and body
entries should capitalized only the first word. Proper nouns or
adjectives should also be capitalized.
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
 How to Format Tables

c. Format. Three formats may be followed in the numbers and titles

of the tables: inverted pyramid, paragraph and block styles.

Examples: (Inverted Pyramid Style)

Table 8. Teaching Techniques Used by Language

Teachers as Perceived
by their Pupils
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
 How to Format Tables

c. Format. Three formats may be followed in the numbers and titles

of the tables: inverted pyramid, paragraph and block styles.

Examples: (Paragraph Style)

Table 8. Teaching Techniques of Language Teachers as

Perceived by their Pupils
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
4. Chapter 4 presents, analyzes and interprets the data
 How to Format Tables

c. Format. Three formats may be followed in the numbers and titles

of the tables: inverted pyramid, paragraph and block styles.

Examples: (Block Style)

Table 8. Teaching Techniques of Language Teachers as

Perceived by their Pupils
 LANGUAGE
RESEARCH

CHAPTER 5
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
5. Chapter 5 gives the summary of findings, conclusions,
and recommendations

a. Summary of Findings. Findings of the study are

summarized according to the questions asked in the
Statement of the Problem. The findings may be headed by the
same questions asked in the Statement or topics pertinent to
findings. Where figures are given, only the highest or lowest
figures and their implications are repeated in the summary.
Findings are stated using the past tense.
(See sample researches on pages 68-76)
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
5. Chapter 5 gives the summary of findings, conclusions,
and recommendations

b. Conclusions. These should evolve from the findings of the

study. They state in general terms what are true about certain
phenomena investigated in the study. For instance, a study on
comparing the reading proficiencies of Grade 1 pupils in public and
private schools manifested lower reading proficiency than those in
private schools. From this finding, the researcher may conclude that
pupils in public schools have lower reading proficiency than those in
private schools.
(See sample researches on pages 68-76)
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
A. PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
5. Chapter 5 gives the summary of findings, conclusions,
and recommendations

c. Recommendations. The researcher should make

recommendations based on the conclusions drawn. In the above
conclusion, the researcher may recommend to the Department of
Education some measures to improve the reading proficiency of
Grade 1. A last recommendation is often directed to future
researchers suggesting other topics related to the study for research.
(See sample researches on pages 68-76)
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
B. RESEARCH REPORT DOCUMENTAQTION
5. Chapter 5 gives the summary of findings, conclusions,
and recommendations
There are many types of documentations, and among the most
commonly used in schools are the Campbell Style, the Chicago
Manual Style and the Modern Language Association of America
(MLA) Style. For scientific researches published in journals, the
trend is to use the American Psychological Association (APA) Style.
Most referred journals prefer APA
since there is an increasing demand in colleges
universities to have researches and referred,
this
included in the Appendix simplified guidelines module
on the use of the
format based on Dewey (2003). has
 DATA COLLECTION AND
ANALYSIS
B. RESEARCH REPORT DOCUMENTAQTION
5. Chapter 5 gives the summary of findings, conclusions,
and recommendations

Every style has a guide handbooks which are available in libraries

and bookstores. Most of the time, when a research is a part of an
institution, the format is decided upon by the institution. The
choice of style and format does not really matter as long as the
chosen format is followed consistently.