BRIDGE COURSE

CLASS: I IT
DATE: 25.09.21
TIME:9:30-10:30AM
 Languages used in Computer or Computer Languages

 Language is actually a vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for

constructing a computer program to perform a specific task.

 The term programming language usually constitutes several set of

instructions to perform a specific task.

 A program is written as a series of human understandable computer

instructions that can be read by compiler and linker, and translated
into machine code so that a computer can understand and run it.

 Thus we can say that a programming language is a computer

language, programmers used these languages to develop applications,
script or other set of instruction for a computer to execute.
 Types of Computer Programming Languages

 There are basically two types of computer programming

languages given below:
• Low level language
• High level language
 Low Level Languages
 The programming languages that are very close to machine
code (0s and 1s) are called low-level programming
languages.

 The examples of low-level languages are:

• machine language
• assembly language
 Machine Language
 The instructions in binary form, which can be directly
understood by the computer (CPU) without translating them, is
called a machine language or machine code.

 Machine language is also known as first generation of

programming language.
 Machine language is the fundamental language of the computer
and the program instructions in this language is in the binary
form (that is 0's and 1's).

 This language is different for different computers.

 It is not easy to learn the machine language.

 Advantage of Machine Language CONT…
 The only advantage of machine language is that the program of machine language
runs very fast because no translation program is required for the CPU.

 Disadvantage of Machine Language

 Machine Dependent - the internal design of every computer is different from every
other type of computer, machine language also differs from one computer to
another.
 Hence, after becoming proficient in the machine language of one type of computer,
if a company decides to change to another type, then its programmer will have to
learn a new machine language and would have to rewrite all existing program.

 Difficult to Modify - it is difficult to correct or modify this language. Checking

machine instructions to locate errors is very difficult and time consuming.

 Difficult to Program - a computer executes machine language program directly

and efficiently, it is difficult to program in machine language. A machine language
programming must be knowledgeable about the hardware structure of the computer.
 Assembly Language

 It is another low-level programming language because the program instructions

written in this language are close to machine language.

 Assembly language is also known as second generation of programming language.

 With assembly language, a programmer writes instructions using symbolic

instruction code instead of binary codes.

 Symbolic codes are meaningful abbreviations such as SUB is used for substation
operation, MUL for multiply operation and so on. Therefore this language is also
called the low-level symbolic language.

 The set of program instructions written in assembly language are also called as
mnemonic code.

 Assembly language provides facilities for controlling the hardware.

 CONT…
 Advantage of Assembly Language
 Here are some of the main advantages of using assembly language:

 Easy to understand and use - due to the use of mnemonic instead of numeric op-codes
and symbolic names for data location instead of numeric addresses, it is much easier to
understand and use in contrast with machine language.

 Easier to locate and correct errors - the programmers need not to keep track of storage
location of the data and instruction, fewer errors are made while writing programs in
assembly language and those that are made, are easier to find and correct.

 Easy to modify - assembly language are easier to understand, it is easier to locate, correct
and modify instruction of an assembly language program.

 Efficiency of machine language - an assembly language program will be just as long as

the resulting machine language program. Hence, leaving out the translation time required
by the assembler, the actual execution time for an assembly language program and its
equivalent machine language program.
 CONT…
 Disadvantage of Assembly Languages
 And here are some of the main disadvantages of using assembly
language:
 Machine dependent - each instructions of assembly language program
is translated into exactly one machine language instruction, an assembly
language programs are dependent on machine language.
 Knowledge of hardware required - assembly languages are machine
dependent, an assembly language programmer must have a good
knowledge of characteristics and logical structure of his/her computer to
write a good assembly language computer code.
 Machine level coding - assembly language instruction is substituted for
one machine language instruction. Hence like machine language
programs, write assembly language program is also time consuming and
difficult
 High Level Languages
 There are basically two types of computer programming languages given below:
• Low level language
• High level language

 The programming languages that are close to human languages (example like
English languages) are called the high-level languages.

 The examples of high-level languages are:

 Fortran
 COBOL
 Basic
 Pascal
 C
 C++
 Java
 CONT….
 The high level programming languages are
further divided into:
• Procedural languages
• Non procedural languages
• Object oriented programming languages
 CONT…
 Advantages of High Level Languages

 There are several advantages of high level programming languages. The most important advantages are:

 Easy to learn - the high level languages are very easy to learn than low level languages. The statements
written for the program are similar to English-like statements.

 Easy to understand - the program written in high level language by one programmer can easily be
understood by another because the program instructions are similar to the English language.

 Easy to write program - in high level language, a new program can easily be written in a very short time.
The larger and complicated software can be developed in few days or months.

 Easy to detect and remove errors - the errors in a program can be easily detected and removed. mostly the
errors are occurred during the compilation of new program.

 Built-in library functions - Each high level language provides a large number of built-in functions or
procedures that can be used to perform specific task during designing of new programs. In this way, a large
amount of time of programmer is saved.

 Machine Independence - program written in high level language is machine independent. It means that a
program written in one type of computer can be executed on another type of computer.
 Non Procedural Languages

 Non procedural programming languages are also known as fourth generation languages. In non procedural programming

languages, the order of program instructions is not important. Ihe importance is given only to, what is to be done.

 With a non procedural language, the user/programmer writes English like instructions to retrieve data from databases.

These languages are easier to use than procedural languages. These languages provide the user-friendly program

development tools to write instructions. The programmers have not to spend much time for coding the program.

 The most important non procedural languages and tools are discussed below:
 SQL - it stands for structured query language. it is very popular database access language and is specially used to access

and to manipulate the data of databases

 RPG - it stands for report program generator. This language was introduced by IBM to generate business reports.

Typically, RPG is used for application development on IBM midrange computers, such as AS/400.
 Object Oriented Programming Languages
 The object oriented programming concept was introduced in the late 1960s, but
now it has become the most popular approach to develop software.

 In object oriented programming, the software is developed by using a set of

interfacing object.
 An object is a component of program that has a set of modules and data
structure.
 The modules are also called methods and are used to access the data from the
object
 . The modern technique to design the program is object oriented approach.
 It is a very easy approach, in which program designed by using objects.
 Once an object for any program designed, it can be re-used in any other
program.

 Now-a-days, most popular and commonly used object oriented programming

(OOPs) languages are C++ and Java.
 Memory

 n computers, memory is the most essential

component of the normal functioning of any system.
 The computer system categorizes the memory for
different purposes and uses
 What is computer memory?
• is any physical device, used to store data, information or
instruction temporarily or permanently. It is the collection of
storage units that stores binary information in the form of bits.
The memory block is split into a small number of components,
called cells. Each cell has a unique address to store the data in
memory, ranging from zero to memory size minus one.
 Features of Memory
 Location: It represents the internal or external location of the memory in a computer. The internal memory is inbuilt in computer memory. It is also known

as primary memory. the example of primary memory are registers, cache and main memory. Whereas, external memory is the separate storage device from

the computer, such as disk, tape, USB pen drive.

 Capacity: It is the most important feature of computer memory. Storage capacity can vary in external and internal memory. External devices' storage

capacity is measured in terms of bytes, whereas the internal memory is measured with bytes or words. The storage word length can vary in bits, such as 8,

16 or 32 bits.

 Access Methods: Memory can be accessed through four modes of memory.

• DMA: As the name specifies, Direct Memory Address (DMA) is a method that allows input/output (I/O) devices to access or retrieve data directly or

from the main memory.

• Sequential Access Method: The sequential access method is used in a data storage device to read stored data sequentially from the computer memory.

Whereas, the data received from random access memory (RAM) can be in any order.
• Random Access Method: It is a method used to randomly access data from memory. This method is the opposite of SAM. For example, to go from A

to Z in random access, we can directly jump to any specified location. In the Sequential method, we have to follow all intervening from A to Z to reach

at the particular memory location.

• Associative Access Method: It is a special type of memory that optimizes search performance through defined data to directly access the stored

information based on a memory address.

 Cont…
 Unit of transfer: As the name suggests, a unit of transfer measures the transfer rate of bits that can be read or
write in or out of the memory devices. The transfer rate of data can be different in external and internal
memory.
• Internal memory: The transfer rate of bits is mostly equal to the word size.
• External memory: The transfer rate of bit or unit is not equal to the word length. It is always greater than a word or may be
referred to as blocks.
 Performance: The performance of memory is majorly divided into three parts.
• Access Time: In random access memory, it represents the total time taken by memory devices to perform a read or write
operation that an address is sent to memory.
• Memory Cycle Time: Total time required to access memory block and additional required time before starting second access.
• Transfer rate: It describes the transfer rate of data used to transmit memory to or from an external or internal memory device.
Bit transfer can be different for different external and internal devices.
 Physical types: It defines the physical type of memory used in a computer such as magnetic, semiconductor,
magneto-optical and optical.
 Organization: It defines the physical structure of the bits used in memory.
 Physical characteristics: It specifies the physical behavior of the memory like volatile, non-volatile or non-
erasable memory.
 Volatile memory is known as RAM, which requires power to retain stored information, and if any power loss
has occurred, stored data will be lost.
 Non-volatile memory is a permanent storage memory that is used to obtain any stored information, even
when the power is off. Non-erasable memory is a type of memory that cannot be erased after the
manufactured like ROM because at the time of manufactured ROM are programmed.
Classification of Memory
 Primary or Main Memory

 Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that
communicates directly within the CPU , Auxiliary memory and the Cache memory.

 Main memory is used to kept programs or data when the processor is active to use them.

 When a program or data is activated to execute, the processor first loads instructions or
programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then the processor starts
execution.

 . The primary memory is volatile, which means the data in memory can be lost if it is not
saved when a power failure occurs.

 It is costlier than secondary memory, and the main memory capacity is limited as
compared to secondary memory.

 The primary memory is further divided into two parts:

• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• ROM (Read Only Memory)
 Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Random Access Memory (RAM)

 is one of the faster types of main memory accessed directly by the
CPU. It is the hardware in a computer device to temporarily store
data, programs or program results.
 It is used to read/write data in memory until the machine is
working.
 It is volatile, which means if a power failure occurs or the
computer is turned off, the information stored in RAM
 will be lost.
 All data stored in computer memory can be read or accessed
randomly at any time.
 Cont…
 There are two types of RAM:
• SRAM
• DRAM
 DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for the dynamic
storage of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information. The cell is made up of two
parts:

 a capacitor and a transistor. The size of the capacitor and the transistor is so small, requiring millions of
them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can hold more data than an SRAM chip of the same
size.

 However, the capacitor needs to be continuously refreshed to retain information because DRAM is
volatile. If the power is switched off, the data store in memory is lost.

 Characteristics of DRAM
 It requires continuously refreshed to retain the data.
 It is slower than SRAM
 It holds a large amount of data
 It is the combination of capacitor and transistor
 It is less expensive as compared to SRAM
 Less power consumption
 SRAM
 SRAM: (Static Random-Access Memory) is
a type of RAM used to store static data in the
memory.
 It means to store data in SRAM remains active
as long as the computer system has a power
supply. However, data is lost in SRAM when
power failures have occurred.
 Characteristics of Static Ram
• It does not require to refresh.
• It is faster than DRAM
• It is expensive.
• High power consumption
• Longer life
• Large size
• Uses as a cache memory
 Advantages of RAM

 It is a faster type of memory in a computer.

 It requires less power to operate.
 Program loads much faster
 More RAM increases the performance of a
system and can multitask.
 Perform read and write operations.
 The processor can read information faster than
a hard disc, floppy, USB, etc.
 Disadvantages of RAM

 Less RAM reduces the speed and performance

of a computer.
 Due to volatile, it requires electricity to
preserve the data.
 It is expensive than ROM
 It is unreliable as compared to ROM
 The Size of RAM is limited.
 Read-Only Memory (ROM)
 ROM is a memory device or storage medium that is used
to permanently store information inside a chip. It is a read-only
memory that can only read stored information, data or programs,
but we cannot write or modify anything.

 A ROM contains some important instructions or program data

that are required to start or boot a computer. It is a non-
volatile memory; it means that the stored information cannot be
lost even when the power is turned off or the system is shut
down.
 Types of ROM
 There are five types of Read Only Memory:
 MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):
MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory whose program or data is pre-configured by the integrated circuit
manufacture at the time of manufacturing. Therefore, a program or instruction stored within the MROM chip cannot be
changed by the user.
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any type of information or program only once. It
means it is the empty PROM chip in which the user can write the desired content or program only once using the special
PROM programmer or PROM burner device; after that, the data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.
 EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is the type of read only memory in which stored data can be erased and re-programmed only once in the EPROM
memory. It is a non-volatile memory chip that holds data when there is no power supply and can also store data for a
minimum of 10 to 20 years. In EPROM, if we want to erase any stored data and re-programmed it, first, we need to pass
the ultraviolet light for 40 minutes to erase the data; after that, the data is re-created in EPROM.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read only memory used to erase stored data using a high
voltage electrical charge and re-programmed it. It is also a non-volatile memory whose data cannot be erased or lost;
even the power is turned off. In EEPROM, the stored data can be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times, and
the data erase one byte at a time.
 Flash ROM:
Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written or programmed in small units called Block or
Sector. Flash Memory is an EEPROM form of computer memory, and the contents or data cannot be lost when the power
source is turned off. It is also used to transfer data between the computer and digital devices.
 Advantages of ROM

 It is a non-volatile memory in which stored information

can be lost even power is turned off.
 It is static, so it does not require refreshing the content
every time.
 Data can be stored permanently.
 It is easy to test and store large data as compared to
RAM.
 These cannot be changed accidently
 It is cheaper than RAM.
 It is simple and reliable as compared to RAM.
 It helps to start the computer and loads the OS.
 Disadvantages of ROM

 Store data cannot be updated or modify except

to read the existing data.
 It is a slower memory than RAM to access the
stored data.
 It takes around 40 minutes to destroy the
existing data using the high charge of
ultraviolet light.
 Secondary Memory

 Secondary memory is a permanent storage space to hold a large amount

of data.
 Secondary memory is also known as external memory that representing
the various storage media (hard drives, USB, CDs, flash drives and
DVDs) on which the computer data and program can be saved on a long
term basis.
 However, it is cheaper and slower than the main memory. Unlike primary
memory, secondary memory cannot be accessed directly by the CPU.
 Instead of that, secondary memory data is first loaded into the RAM
(Random Access Memory) and then sent to the processor to read and
update the data.
 Secondary memory devices also include magnetic disks like hard disk
and floppy disks, an optical disk such as CDs and CDROMs, and
magnetic tapes.
 Features of Secondary Memory

 Its speed is slower than the primary/ main memory.

 Store data cannot be lost due to non-volatile nature.
 It can store large collections of different types, such
as audio, video, pictures, text, software, etc.
 All the stored data in a secondary memory cannot be
lost because it is a permanent storage area; even the
power is turned off.
 It has various optical and magnetic memories to store
data.
 Types of secondary memory devices
 The following are the types of secondary memory devices:
 Hard Disk
 A hard disk is a computer's permanent storage device. It is a
non-volatile disk that permanently stores data, programs, and
files, and cannot lose store data when the computer's power
source is switched off.
 Typically, it is located internally on computer's motherboard
 It is a large storage device, found on every computer or
laptop for permanently storing installed software, music, text
documentation, videos, operating system, and data until the
user did not delete.
Cont…
 Floppy Disk

 A floppy disk is a secondary storage system that consisting of thin, flexible

magnetic coating disks for holding electronic data such as computer files.

 It is also known as Floppy Diskette that comes in three sizes like 8 inches,
5.5 inches and 3.5 inches. The stored data of a floppy disk can be accessed
through the floppy disk drive.

 Furthermore, it is the only way through a new program installed on a

computer or backup of the information.

 However, it is the oldest type of portable storage device, which can store
data up to 1.44 MB. Since most programs were larger, that required
multiple floppy diskettes to store large amounts of data. Therefore, it is not
used due to very low memory storage.
Cont…
 CD (Compact Disc)

 A CD is an optical disk storage device, stands for Compact Disc.

 It is a storage device used to store various data types like audio,

videos, files, OS, Back-Up file, and any other information useful to a

computer.
 The CD has a width of 1.2 mm and 12 cm in height, which can store

approximately 783 MB of data size.

 It uses laser light to read and write data from the CDs.
Cont…
 Types of CDs

 CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory): It is mainly

used for bulk size mass like audio CDs, software and
computer games at the time of manufacture.

 Users can only read data, text, music, videos from the disc, but
they cannot modify or burnt it.
 CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable): The type of Compact
Disc used to write once by the user; after that, it cannot be
modified or erased.

 CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): It is a rewritable CD

disc, often used to write or delete the stored data.
 DVD Drive/Disc

 DVD is an optical disc storage device, stands for Digital

Video Display or Digital Versatile Disc. It has the same size
as a CD but can store a larger amount of data than a compact
disc.
 It was developed in 1995 by Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba and
Philips four electronics companies. DVD drives are divided
into three types, such as DVD ROM (Read Only
Memory), DVD R (Recordable) and DVD RW (Rewritable or
Erasable).
 It can store multiple data formats like audio, videos, images,
software, operating system, etc.
 The storing capacity of data in DVD is 4.7 GB to 17 GB.
Cont…
 Cont…
 Blu Ray Disc (BD)
 Blu Ray is an Optical disc storage device used to store a large amount of data
or high definition of video recording and playing other media files. It uses
laser technology to read the stored data of the Blu-ray Disk. It can store more
data at a greater density as compared to CD/ DVD. For example, compact
discs allow us to store 700 MB of data, and in DVDs, it provides up to 8 GB
of storage capacity, while Blu-ray Discs provide 28 GB of space to store data.
 Pen Drive
 A pen drive is a portable device used to permanently store data and is also
known as a USB flash drive. It is commonly used to store and transfer the
data connected to a computer using a USB port. It does not have any
moveable part to store the data; it uses an integrated circuit chip that stores the
data. It allows the users to store and transfer data like audio, videos, images,
etc. from one computer to any USB pen drive. The storing capacity of pen
drives from 64 MB to 128 GB or more.
Cont…
 Cache Memory

 It is a small-sized chip-based computer memory

that lies between the CPU and the main memory. It
is a faster, high performance and temporary
memory to enhance the performance of the CPU. It
stores all the data and instructions that are often
used by computer CPUs. It also reduces the access
time of data from the main memory. It is faster than
the main memory, and sometimes, it is also called
CPU memory because it is very close to the CPU
chip. The following are the levels of cache memory.
 Advantages of Cache Memory
 Cache memory is the faster memory as compared to the
main memory.
 It stores all data and instructions that are repeatedly
used by the CPU for improving the performance of a
computer.
 The access time of data is less than the main memory.
 Disadvantage of Cache Memory
 It is very costly as compared to the Main memory and
the Secondary memory.
 It has limited storage capacity.
 Register Memory

 The register memory is a temporary storage area for storing

and transferring the data and the instructions to a computer.
It is the smallest and fastest memory of a computer.

 It is a part of computer memory located in the CPU as the

form of registers.

 The register memory is 16, 32 and 64 bits in size. It

temporarily stores data instructions and the address of the
memory that is repeatedly used to provide faster response to
the CPU.