PSYCHOLOGY – SSC 210

LAHORE SCHOOL OF
ECONOMICS

HIRRA RANA
 BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR
 WHAT ARE THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM?

 WHY DO PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY THE BRAIN AND THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM?
• PLAYING THE PIANO, DRIVING A CAR, OR HITTING A TENNIS
BALL DEPENDS, AT ONE LEVEL, ON EXACT MUSCLE
COORDINATION.

• BUT IF WE CONSIDER HOW THE MUSCLES CAN BE ACTIVATED

SO PRECISELY, FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES ARE INVOLVED.

• FOR THE MUSCLES TO PRODUCE COMPLEX MOVEMENTS THAT

MAKE UP ANY MEANINGFUL PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, THE BRAIN
HAS TO PROVIDE THE RIGHT MESSAGES TO THEM AND
COORDINATE THOSE MESSAGES.
• THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IS THE PATHWAY FOR THE
INSTRUCTIONS THAT PERMIT OUR BODIES TO CARRY OUT SUCH
PRECISE ACTIVITIES.

• HERE WE LOOK AT THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF

NEURONS, THE CELLS THAT MAKE UP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM,
INCLUDING THE BRAIN.
SUCH MESSAGES—AS WELL AS THOSE WHICH ENABLE US TO
THINK, REMEMBER, AND EXPERIENCE EMOTION—ARE
PASSED THROUGH SPECIALIZED CELLS CALLED NEURONS
NEURONS , OR NERVE CELLS, ARE THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. THEIR QUANTITY IS STAGGERING—
PERHAPS AS MANY AS 1 TRILLION NEURONS THROUGHOUT
THE BODY ARE INVOLVED IN THE CONTROL OF BEHAVIOR
(BOAHEN, 2005)
DENDRITE: A CLUSTER OF FIBERS AT ONE END OF A NEURON THAT
RECEIVES MESSAGES FROM OTHER NEURONS.

AXON: THE PART OF THE NEURON THAT CARRIES MESSAGES DESTINED FOR
OTHER NEURONS.

TERMINAL BUTTONS:
SMALL BULGES AT THE END OF AXONS THAT SEND MESSAGES TO OTHER
NEURONS.

MYELIN SHEATH : A PROTECTIVE COAT OF FAT AND PROTEIN THAT WRAPS

AROUND THE AXON.
NEURONS AND NEURONAL COMMUNICATION:
THE STRUCTURE OF A NEURON

There are billions of neurons 8

(nerve cells) throughout the body.
 ACTION POTENTIAL:
A NEURAL IMPULSE THAT TRAVELS
DOWN AN AXON LIKE A WAVE
JUST AS “THE WAVE” CAN FLOW TO THE
RIGHT IN A STADIUM EVEN THOUGH
THE PEOPLE ONLY MOVE UP AND
DOWN, A WAVE MOVES DOWN AN AXON
ALTHOUGH IT IS ONLY MADE UP OF ION
EXCHANGES MOVING IN AND OUT.

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 When does the cell send
the action potential?...
when it reaches a
threshold How neurons communicate
(with each other):
The neuron  When the The signal is
receives threshold is transmitted
reached, the The action to another
signals from potential
other action potential cell.
starts moving. travels down However, the
neurons;  Like a gun, it the axon
some are from the cell message
telling it to either fires or it must find a
doesn’t; more body to the way to cross
fire and some terminal
are telling it stimulation does a gap
nothing. branches. between
not to fire.  This is known as cells. This
the “all-or- gap is also
none” response. called the
synapse.

The threshold is reached when

excitatory (“Fire!”) signals
outweigh the inhibitory (“Don’t 10
fire!”) signals by a certain amount.
 THE SYNAPSE
The synapse is a
junction between the
axon tip of the
sending neuron and
the dendrite or cell
body of the receiving
neuron.

The synapse is
also known as the
“synaptic
junction” or
“synaptic gap.”
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 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
NEUROTRANSMIT
TERS ARE
CHEMICALS USED
TO SEND A SIGNAL
ACROSS THE
SYNAPTIC GAP.

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 REUPTAKE:
RECYCLING NEUROTRANSMITTERS [NTS]

REUPTAKE:
AFTER THE
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
STIMULATE THE RECEPTORS
ON THE RECEIVING
NEURON, THE CHEMICALS
ARE TAKEN BACK UP INTO
THE SENDING NEURON TO
BE USED AGAIN.

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Neural Communication:
SEEING ALL THE STEPS
TOGETHER

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 ROLES OF DIFFERENT
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Some Neurotransmitters and Their Functions
Neurotransmitter Function Problems Caused by Imbalances
Serotonin Affects mood, hunger, Undersupply linked to depression;
sleep, and arousal some antidepressant drugs raise
serotonin levels
Dopamine Influences movement, Oversupply linked to schizophrenia;
learning, attention, and undersupply linked to tremors and
emotion decreased mobility in Parkinson’s
disease and ADHD
Acetylcholine Enables muscle action, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate as
(ACh) learning, and memory Alzheimer’s disease progresses
Norepinephrine Helps control alertness Undersupply can depress mood and
and arousal cause ADHD-like attention problems
GABA (gamma- A major inhibitory Undersupply linked to seizures,
aminobutyric acid neurotransmitter tremors, and insomnia
Glutamate A major excitatory Oversupply can overstimulate the brain,
neurotransmitter; producing migraines or seizures;15this is
involved in memory why some people avoid MSG
(monosodium glutamate) in food
• IF YOU HAVE YOU EVER BEEN ADDICTED TO A BEHAVIOR,
SUCH AS SHOPPING OR YOU'VE LACKED FOCUS OR
MOTIVATION TO COMPLETE A TASK, OR YOU'VE SUFFERED
FROM DEPRESSION, BRAIN CHEMICALS MAY BE THE CAUSE.

• AT THE CENTER OF THESE COMPLEX BEHAVIORS ARE TWO

POWERFUL NEUROTRANSMITTERS, DOPAMINE AND
SEROTONIN. THESE NATURALLY OCCURRING CHEMICALS IN
YOUR BRAIN HELP YOUR BODY MOVE FLUIDLY, YOUR MIND
STAY CALM AND FOCUSED ON A TASK, AND HELP YOU TO
RESIST DEPRESSION AND OTHER MOOD DISORDERS. THEIR
LEVELS ARE AFFECTED BY YOUR LIFESTYLE.
 SEROTONIN Dopamine
PATHWAYS pathways
NETWORKS OF NEURONS THAT Networks of neurons that
COMMUNICATE WITH SEROTONIN communicate with dopamine are
HELP REGULATE MOOD. involved in focusing attention and
controlling movement.

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MOOD
• DOPAMINE IS IMPORTANT FOR ATTENTION, MOTIVATION AND GOAL-
DIRECTED BEHAVIOR -- IT ACTS TO REINFORCE BEHAVIORS THAT MAKE
YOU FEEL GOOD. COCAINE, FOR EXAMPLE, INCREASE DOPAMINE AND
MAY MAKE THESE DRUGS MORE ADDICTIVE. IN CONTRAST, SEROTONIN
IS IMPORTANT FOR CALMNESS AND EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING.
MOVEMENT
• YOUR BODY REQUIRES DOPAMINE FOR NORMAL MOVEMENT SUCH AS
WALKING AND BALANCE. LOW LEVELS OF DOPAMINE, AS SEEN IN
PEOPLE WITH PARKINSON DISEASE, CAUSE A LACK OF FLUID
MOVEMENTS. PEOPLE BECOME STIFF AND “FROZEN” IN THEIR BODIES.
LIFESTYLE FACTORS
• REGULAR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IS IMPORTANT FOR NORMAL
BRAIN FUNCTION AND MENTAL HEALTH. SUSTAINED
EXERCISE INCREASES THE LEVEL OF SEROTONIN IN YOUR
BRAIN AND SEROTONIN MAY PLAY A KEY ROLE IN
PRESERVING BRAIN FUNCTION. AS YOU AGE, THE AMOUNT
OF SEROTONIN IN YOUR BRAIN DECREASES, WHICH THIS IS
LINKED TO AN INCREASE IN DEPRESSION.
THE BRAIN
 EEG: PET: positron emission
electroencephalogram tomography

AN EEG
(ELECTROENCEPHALOG The PET scan allows us to see
RAM) IS A RECORDING
OF THE ELECTRICAL what part of the brain is active
WAVES SWEEPING by tracing where a radioactive
ACROSS THE BRAIN’S
SURFACE. IT IS USEFUL form of glucose goes while the
IN STUDYING SEIZURES brain performs a given task.
AND SLEEP.

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 MRI: magnetic
resonance imaging

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

makes images from signals produced by
brain tissue after magnets align the spin
of atoms.
The arrows below show ventricular
enlargement in a schizophrenic patient
(right).

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 fMRI: functional MRI

• A FUNCTIONAL MRI (FMRI) USES MRI TECHNOLOGY TO

MAKE BRAIN ACTIVITY VISIBLE.
• LIKE PET SCANS, FMRIS ALSO PROVIDE IMAGES OF ACTIVITY
THROUGHOUT THE BRAIN.
• FOR EXAMPLE, IF WE SCANNED YOU WHILE YOU ARE
READING THIS TEXTBOOK, AREAS OF YOUR BRAIN
INVOLVED IN UNDERSTANDING WHAT YOU READ WOULD BE
HIGHLIGHTED IN AN FMRI IMAGE.
• PARTICIPANTS WERE ASKED
TO TELL THE TRUTH OR TO LIE
WHILE FMRI IMAGES OF THEIR
BRAINS WERE TAKEN.

• WHEN COMPARED WITH

TELLING THE TRUTH (SHOWN
IN BLUE), AREAS TOWARD THE
FRONT OF THE BRAIN WERE
ACTIVE DURING LYING (Adapted from Langleben et al., HUMAN
(SHOWN IN RED). BRAIN MAPPING
Copyright © 2005 Daniel Langleben. Reprinted
by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION (TMS)
ONE OF THE NEWEST TYPES OF SCAN. BY EXPOSING A TINY
REGION OF THE BRAIN TO A STRONG MAGNETIC FIELD, TMS
CAUSES A MOMENTARY INTERRUPTION OF ELECTRICAL
ACTIVITY. RESEARCHERS THEN ARE ABLE TO NOTE THE
EFFECTS OF THIS INTERRUPTION ON NORMAL BRAIN
FUNCTIONING.
 STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
• THREE MAIN PARTS:
(i) HINDBRAIN – PERFORMS ROUTINE FUNCTIONS
(BREATHING, BALANCING ETC)
(ii) MIDBRAIN – CENTER FOR REFLEXES PARTICULARLY
THOSE ASSOCIATED WITH THE SENSES
(iii) FOREBRAIN:
(a) THALAMUS, HYPOTHALAMUS, AND LIMBIC SYSTEM
(b) CEREBRAL CORTEX
 CEREBRAL
• FOUR LOBES:
CORTEX
(i) FRONTAL LOBE
- ROLE IN THINKING, DECISION MAKING, WORKING MEMORY,
ORGANIZING BEHAVIOR, PREDICTING CONSEQUENCES OF
ACTIONS
- BROCA’S AREA: ROLE IN ABILITY TO SPEAK LANGUAGE
- ROLE IN INHIBITION OF SOCIALLY INAPPROPRIATE
BEHAVIOR

(II) PARIETAL LOBE

- IMPORTANT IN THE SENSE OF TOUCH AND OTHER BODY SENSES
 CEREBRAL CORTEX
(III) TEMPORAL LOBE
- INVOLVED IN THE SENSE OF HEARING
- WERNICKE'S AREA: ROLE IN UNDERSTANDING
SPOKEN LANGUAGE

(IV) OCCIPITAL LOBE

- ROLE IN PROCESSING OF SENSORY INFORMATION
FROM THE EYE
HEMISPHERES OF THE CEREBRAL
CORTEXLINKED BY CORPUS
• TWO CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
CALLOSUM
• GENERALLY INPUT FROM SENSE OF VISION AND
TOUCH GO TO OPPOSITE HEMISPHERE
• LEFT HEMISPHERE: PRIMARILY HANDLES VERBAL
INFORMATION; GREATER ROLE IN +VE EMOTIONS
• RIGHT HEMISPHERE: PRIMARILY HANDLES VISUAL
AND SPATIAL INFORMATION; GREATER ROLE IN –VE
EMOTIONS
• SPLIT BRAINS
 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE
CEREBRAL
• AVERAGE FEMALE BRAINCORTEX
IS SMALLER THAN THE
AVERAGE MALE BRAIN
• SURFACE OF THE FEMALE BRAIN IS MORE
COMPLEX AND FOLDED
 BRAIN AND ITS COMPONENTS
CENTRAL CORE
THE “OLD BRAIN,” WHICH CONTROLS BASIC FUNCTIONS SUCH AS
EATING AND SLEEPING AND IS COMMON TO ALL VERTEBRATES.

CEREBELLUM :
THE PART OF THE BRAIN THAT CONTROLS BODILY BALANCE.

RETICULAR FORMATION
THE PART OF THE BRAIN EXTENDING FROM THE MEDULLA
THROUGH THE PONS AND MADE UP OF, GROUPS OF NERVE CELLS
THAT CAN IMMEDIATELY ACTIVATE OTHER PARTS OF THE BRAIN
TO PRODUCE GENERAL BODILY AROUSAL.
THALAMUS
THE PART OF THE BRAIN LOCATED IN THE MIDDLE OF THE
CENTRAL CORE THAT ACTS PRIMARILY TO RELAY
INFORMATION ABOUT THE SENSES.

HYPOTHALAMUS
A TINY PART OF THE BRAIN, LOCATED BELOW THE THALAMUS,
THAT MAINTAINS HOMEOSTASIS AND PRODUCES AND
REGULATES VITAL BEHAVIOR, SUCH AS EATING, DRINKING.
LIMBIC SYSTEM
THE PART OF THE BRAIN THAT CONTROLS EATING,
AGGRESSION, AND REPRODUCTION.
 MOTOR AREA  SENSORY AREA
THE PART OF THE CORTEX THE SITE IN THE BRAIN OF
THAT IS LARGELY THE TISSUE THAT
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CORRESPONDS TO EACH OF
BODY’S VOLUNTARY THE SENSES, WITH THE
MOVEMENT DEGREE OF SENSITIVITY
RELATED TO THE AMOUNT
OF
TISSUE.
• THE CEREBRAL CORTEX—THE “NEW BRAIN”—HAS AREAS
THAT CONTROL VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT (THE MOTOR
AREA)

• THE SENSES (THE SENSORY AREA); AND THINKING,

REASONING, SPEECH, AND MEMORY (THE ASSOCIATION
AREAS).

• THE LIMBIC SYSTEM, FOUND ON THE BORDER OF THE

“OLD” AND “NEW” BRAINS, IS ASSOCIATED WITH EATING,
AGGRESSION, REPRODUCTION, AND THE EXPERIENCES OF
PLEASURE AND PAIN.