Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

Chapter 8
Seepage

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.1 Introduction
In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in
one direction only, and it is not uniform over the entire area
perpendicular to the flow.

In such cases, the groundwater flow is generally calculated

by the use of graphs referred to as flow nets.

The concept of the flow net is based on Laplace’s equation

of continuity.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

Consider a single row of sheet piles that have been driven
into a permeable soil layer as shown below.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

The row of sheet piles is assumed to be impervious.

The steady-state flow of water from the upstream to the downstream

side through the permeable layer is a two-dimensional flow.

For flow at a point A, we consider an elemental soil block. The block has
dimensions dx, dy, and dz.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

Let vx and vz be the components of the discharge velocity in
the horizontal and vertical directions, respectively.

The rate of flow of water into the elemental block in the

horizontal direction is equal to vx dz dy, and in the vertical
direction it is vz dx dy.

The rates of outflow from the block in the horizontal and

vertical directions are
 v x   v z 
 v x  x dx  dzdy and  v z  z dz  dxdy
   

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

Assuming that water is incompressible and that no volume
change in the soil mass occurs, we know that the total rate
of inflow should equal the total rate of outflow.

Thus,

 v x   vz  
v 
 x x dx  dzdy  v 
 z z  dxdy   v x dzdy  v z dxdy   0
    

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

With Darcy’s law, the discharge velocities can be expressed
as

kx and kz are the hydraulic conductivities in the vertical and

horizontal directions, respectively.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.2 Laplace’s Equation of Continuity

From the previous equations we can write

If the soil is isotropic with respect to the hydraulic

conductivity (kx=kz), the preceding continuity equation for
two-dimensional flow simplifies to

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.3 Continuity Equation for Solution

of Simple Flow Problems
 The continuity equation can be used in
 solving some simple flow problems.

 To illustrate this, let us consider a one-dimensional flow

problem, as shown in Figure in the next slide which a
constant head is maintained across a two-layered soil for
the flow of water.

 The head difference between the top of soil layer no. 1

and the bottom of soil layer no. 2 is h1. Because the flow
is in only the z direction, the continuity equation as stated
above is simplified to the form 𝜕2 h
=0 𝑜𝑟 h= 𝐴 𝑧 + 𝐴
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2 accessible
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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

Flow through a two layered soil:

For flow through soil layer no. 1, the
boundary conditions are
Condition 1: At z = 0, h=.
Condition 2: At z = , h=

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

Flow through a two layered soil:

For flow through soil layer no. 2, the
boundary conditions are
Condition 1: At z = , h=.
Condition 2: At z = , h=0

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

Example 1(Continuity Equation)

 Refer to Figure.
 Given: 305 mm., 508
mm., 610 mm.,
h=508 mm., z=203
mm., 0.066 cm/sec,
and diameter of the soil
specimen is D=76 mm.
 Determine the rate of
flow of water through
the two-layered soil
(cm3/hr).

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.4 Flow Nets

The continuity equation in an isotropic

medium represents two orthogonal families of curves: the

flow lines and the equipotential lines.

A flow line is a line along which water molecules will travel

from the upstream to the downstream side in the permeable
soil medium.

An equipotential line is a line along which the potential head

at all points is equal.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.4 Flow Nets

These two line are perpendicular to each other.

Thus, if piezometers are placed at different points along an

equipotential line, the water level will rise to the same
elevation in all of them.

The figure on the next slide demonstrates the definition of

flow and equipotential lines for flow in the permeable soil
layer around the row of sheet piles shown in the first figure.

The height of water in the piezometer is the pressure head

at the point.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.4 Flow Nets

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8.4 Flow Nets

A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential
lines is called a flow net.

Flow nets are constructed to calculate groundwater flow in

the media.

To complete the graphic construction of a flow net, one must

draw the flow and equipotential lines in such a way that the
equipotential lines intersect the flow lines at right angles
and the flow elements formed are approximate squares.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.4 Flow Nets

Below is a figure showing an example of a completed flow
net.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.4 Flow Nets

Another example of a flow net in an isotropic permeable
layer is shown in the figure below.

In these figures, Nf is the number of flow channels in the

flow net, and Nd is the number of potential drops.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.4 Flow Nets

Drawing a flow net takes several trials.

While constructing the flow net, keep the boundary conditions in mind.

For the figure on Slide 13, the following boundary conditions apply:

1. The upstream and downstream surfaces of the permeable layer are

equipotential lines.

2. Because ab and de are equipotential lines, all the flow lines intersect
them at right angles.

3. The boundary of the impervious layer—that is, line fg—is a flow line,
and so is the surface of the impervious sheet pile, line acd.

4. The equipotential lines intersect acd and fg at right angles.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

In any flow net, the strip between any two adjacent flow
lines is called a flow channel.

The figure on the next slide shows a flow channel with the
equipotential lines forming square elements.

Let h1, h2, h3, h4,...hn be the piezometric levels corresponding

to the equipotential lines.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

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8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

The rate of seepage through the flow channel per unit
length can be calculated as follows:

Because there is no flow across the flow lines,

From Darcy’s law, the flow rate is equal to kiA. Thus we

write

 h1  h2   h2  h3   h3  h4 
q  k   l1  k   l2  k   l3  ...
 l1   l2   l3 

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

The previous equation shows that if the flow elements are
drawn as approximate squares, then the drop in the
piezometric level between any two adjacent equipotential
lines is the same.

This is called the potential drop.

Thus and

H = head difference between the upstream and downstream

sides
Nd = number of potential drops

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

If the number of flow channels in a flow net is equal to Nf,
the total rate of flow through all the channels per unit length
can be given by

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

Alternatively, one can draw a rectangular mesh for a flow
channel, as shown in the figure below. The width-to-length
ratios for all the rectangular elements in the flow net are the
same.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

For the previous figure we can write the equation

 h1  h2   h2  h3   h3  h4 
q  k   b1  k   b2  k   b3  ....
 l1   l2   l3 
If b1/l1 = b2/l2 = b3/l3 = … = n, then we can write the
equation

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

The figure below show a flow net for seepage around a
single row of sheet piles.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

Note that flow channels 1 and 2 have square elements.

Thus the rate of flow through these two channels can be

obtained from the equation

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8.5 Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net

However, flow channel 3 has rectangular elements.

These elements have a width-to-length ratio of about 0.38;

thus we have

So, the total rate of seepage can be given as

The flow channel 3 can be considered as a part-channel and

hence Nf = 2.38.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.6 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

Most soils exhibit some degree of anisotropy.

To account for soil anisotropy with respect to hydraulic

conductivity, we must modify the flow net construction.

The differential equation of continuity for a two-dimensional

flow is

 2h  2h
 2 0
kz / kx  x z
2

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.6 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

Substituting , we can write the equation

 2h  2h
'2
 2 0
x z

For anisotropic soils, .

In this case, the equation represents two families of curves

that do not meet at 90°.

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8.6 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

To construct the flow net, use the following procedure:

1. Adopt a vertical scale for drawing the cross section.

2. Adopt a horizontal scale such that horizontal scale =

vertical scale.

3. With scales adopted as in Steps 1 and 2, plot the vertical section

through the permeable layer parallel to the direction of flow.

4. Draw the flow net for the permeable layer on the section obtained
from Step 3, with flow lines intersecting equipotential lines at right angles
and the elements as approximate squares.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.6 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

The rate of seepage per unit length can be calculated by

H = total head loss

Nf and Nd = number of flow channels and potential drops,

respectively

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.6 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

Note that when flow nets are drawn in transformed sections,
the flow lines and equipotential lines are orthogonal.

When they are redrawn in a true section, these lines are not
at right angles to each other.

This fact is shown in the figure on the following slide.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.6 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

 To construct the flow net, use the following procedure:
 Step 1: Adopt a vertical scale (that is, z axis) for
drawing the cross section.
 Step 2: Adopt a horizontal scale (that is, x axis) such
that horizontal scale
 vertical scale.
 Step 3: With scales adopted as in steps 1 and 2, plot
the vertical section through the
 permeable layer parallel to the direction of flow.
 Step 4: Draw the flow net for the permeable layer on
the section obtained from step 3, with flow lines
intersecting equipotential lines at right angles and the
 elements as approximate squares.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.6 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

 The rate of seepage per unit length can be calculated by

 H = total headloss
 Number of flow channels and potential drops

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

Sample Problem
The section of a sheet pile
is shown. The coefficient of
permeability of the soil is
4.2x10^-3 m/s. Determine
the seepage into the
downstream side per meter
length of the sheet pile.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.8 Uplift Pressure under Hydraulic

Structure
 Flow nets can be used to determine the uplift pressure
at the base of a hydraulic structure.

 This general concept can be demonstrated by a simple

example. Figure 8.12a shows a weir, the base of which is
2 m below the ground surface. The necessary flow net
also has been drawn (assuming that kx = kz= k). The
pressure distribution diagram at the base of the weir can
be obtained from the equipotential lines as follows.

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 Figure 8.12 (a) A weir; (b) uplift force under a

hydraulic structure

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

 There are seven equipotential drops (Nd) in the

flow net, and the difference in the water levels
between the upstream and downstream sides is H
7 m. The head loss for each potential drop is H/7
7/7 1 m. The uplift pressure at

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

Sample Problem
For the masonry dam shown in the figure, k = 5 m/day.
a) Determine the seepage flow per meter width of the dam in
liters per minute.
b) Determine the uplift pressure at A and B in kPa.
c) Determine the uplift force per meter of the dam. Assume
uplift pressure under the dam varies uniformly.

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

Sample Problem
The coefficient of permeability below a dam is 4 m/day. The water on
the upstream side is 20 meter higher than on the downstream side. To
estimate the seepage below the dam, a flow net is graphically drawn
such that the number of potential drops, Nd=10 and the number of flow
channels Nf=4. The base of the dam is founded 1 m below the ground.
Between the heel and the toe of the dam a distance of 30 meters, there
are 9 potential drops.

a) Estimate the seepage per meter length of dam in liters per minute.
b) What is the uplift pressure at the heel in kPa?
c) What if the uplift pressure at the toe in kPa?

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.9 Seepage through an Earth Dam on

an Impervious Base
Figure on the next slide shows a homogeneous earth
dam resting on an impervious base. Let the hydraulic
conductivity of the compacted material of which the
earth dam is made be equal to k.

The free surface of the water passing through the

dam is given by abcd. It is assumed
that abc is parabolic.

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8.9 Seepage through an Earth Dam on

an Impervious Base
Figure on the next slide shows a homogeneous earth
dam resting on an impervious base. Let the hydraulic
conductivity of the compacted material of which the
earth dam is made be equal to k.

The free surface of the water passing through the

dam is given by abcd. It is assumed
that abc is parabolic.

The slope of the free surface can be assumed to be

equal to the hydraulic gradient. It is also is assumed
that, because this hydraulic gradient is constant with
depth
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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

8.9 Seepage through an Earth Dam on

an Impervious Base
Following a step-by-step procedure to obtain the
seepage rate q (per unit length of the dam):

Step 1: Obtain .
Step 2: Calculate and then 0.3 .
Step 3: Calculate d.
Step 4: With known values of a and d, calculate L
from

Step 5: With known value of L, calculate q

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Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th edition Das/Sivakugan

Example 5 (Seepage through an

Earthdam)
Refer to the earth dam shown in Figure below. Given
that b=45°, a=30°, B=3 m,
H=6 m, height of dam=7.6 m, and k=61x, calculate
the seepage rate, q, in /day/m length.

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 END

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