Signals: E.g., Sound: Air Pressure Variation at A Point As A Function of Time

Digital Signal Processing
: Signals
Information-bearing function
E.g., sound: air pressure variation at a point as a function of time

p(t)
:Dimensionality
Sound: 1-Dimension
Greyscale image i(x,y) : 2-D
Video: 3 x 3-D: {r(x,y,t) g(x,y,t) b(x,y,t)}
: Example signals
Noise - all domains

Spread-spectrum phone - radio
ECG - biological
Music
Image/video - compression
.…
Signal processing
Modify a signal to extract/enhance/ rearrange the
. information
Origin in analog electronics e.g. radar

…Examples
Noise reduction
Data compression
…Representation for recognition/ classification
Digital Signal Processing
DSP = signal processing on a computer
Two effects: discrete-time, discrete level

DSP vs. analog SP
: Conventional signal processing
p(t) process q(t)
p[n] q[n]
p(t) A/D process D/A q(t)
Digital vs. analog
: Pros
Noise performance - quantized signal
Use a general computer - flexibility, upgrde
Stability/duplicability
Novelty
: Cons
Limitations of A/D & D/A
Baseline complexity / power consumption
DSP EXAMPLE
:Speech time-scale modification

extend duration without altering pitch
Operations on signals
Discrete time signal often obtained by sampling a

continuous-time signal
…Sequence {x[n]} = xa(nT), n=…-1,0,1,2

T= samp. period; 1/T= samp. frequency
Sequences
:Can write a sequence by listing values
} . . ., 0.2,2.2,1.1,0.2,-3.7,2.9-, . . .{ = }x[n]{
Arrow indicates where n=0
Thus, X[-1] =-0.2 , X[0]=2.2 , X[1]=0.2

EFT- AND RIGHT-SIDED
:x[n] may be defined only for certain n
N1 ≤ n ≤ N2: Finite length (length = …)

N1 ≤ n: Right-sided (Causal if N1 = 0)
n ≤ N2: Left-sided (Anti-causal if N2 = 0)
Can always extend with zero-padding

Operations on signals
:Addition operation
Adder x[n] + y[n]
y[n] = x[n] + w[n]

w[n]
Multiplication operation
A
Multiplier y[n]
x[n] y[n] = A * x[n]
MORE OPERATIONS
: Product (modulation) operation
Modulator
x[n] * y[n]
y[n] = x[n] * w[n]

w[n]
:E.g. Windowing
Multiplying an infinite-length sequence by a finite-length
window sequence to extract a region
TIME SHIFTING
Time-shifting operation: y[n]=x[n-N]

where N is an integer
If N > 0, it is delaying operation
Unit delay
x[n] y[n] y[n]=x[n-1]
if N < 0, it is an advance operation
+1
Unit advance x[n] 𝑍 y[n] y[n]=x[n+1]
Combination of basic operations
Example
y[n]=a1x[n]+ a2x[n-1]+ a3x[n-2]

a4x[n-3] +
UP- AND DOWN-SAMPLING
Certain operations change the effective

sampling rate of sequences by adding
or removing samples
Up-sampling = adding more samples

interpolation =
Down-sampling = discarding samples
decimation =
Down-sampling
In down-sampling by an integer factor M > 1, every M-th
sample of the input sequence is kept and M - 1 in-between
:samples are removed
X [n] M X d[n]
Down-sampling
An example of down-sampling
X [n] 3 y[n] = x[3n]

Up-sampling
Up-sampling is the converse of downsampling: L-1 zero

.values are inserted between each pair of original values
. . . ,n = 0,±L, 2L
otherwise
X [n] L X u[n]
Up-sampling
An example of up-sampling
X [n] 3
!not inverse of down-sampling

COMPLEX NUMBERS
a mathematical convenience that lead to simple ..
expressions
A second “imaginary” dimension (j≡√-1) is added to all
.values
Rectangular form: x =x(re) + j·x(im)
where magnitude
and phase
:Polar form
Complex math
* When adding, real

and imaginary parts
add: (a+jb) + (c+jd)
j(b+d) + )a+c( =
* ,When multiplying
magnitudes multiply
:and phases add
* Phases modulo 2π
Complex conjugate
:Flips imaginary part / negates phase

Conjugate
:Useful in resolving to real quantities

Classes of sequences
…Useful to define broad categories *
Finite/infinite (extent in n)*
:Real/complex*
CLASSIFICATION BY SYMMETRY
:Conjugate symmetric sequence

if
then 𝑥∗ [−𝑛]
:Conjugate antisymmetric
xca[n] = –xca*[-n] = –xre[-n] + j·xim[-n]
−𝑥 ∗[−𝑛]
−𝑥 ∗[−𝑛]
*
*
*
Conjugate symmetric decomposition
Any sequence can be expressed as conjugate
:symmetric (CS) / antisymmetric (CA) parts
:where
,When signals are real

CS → Even (xre[n] = xre[-n]), CA → Odd
Basic sequences
:Unit sample sequence
:Shift in time
: Can express any sequence with

{ 𝛼 0 ,𝛼 1 , 𝛼 2 ... }=𝛼 0 𝛿[𝑛]+𝛼1 𝛿[𝑛 −1]+𝛼 2 𝛿[𝑛 − 2].... .
{ 𝛼 0 ,𝛼 1 , 𝛼 2 ... } =𝛼 0 𝛿[ 𝐾 0 ]+𝛼 1 𝛿[ 𝐾 1 −1]+𝛼 2 𝛿[ 𝐾 2 −2] .... .
More basic sequences
:Unit step sequence
:Relate to unit sample

Exponential sequences
Exponential sequences are eigenfunctions of LTI systems
:General form
:If A and are a real (and positive)

COMPLEX EXPONENTIALS
: Constants A, can be complex

𝑛
𝑛 ( 𝜎 + 𝑗ω)
−> 𝑎 =𝑒 =𝑒 𝜎 𝑛+ 𝑗 ω𝑛
varying
scale
varying phase
magnitude
Complex exponentials
Complex exponential sequence can 'project down’ onto

real & imaginary axes to give sinusoidal sequences
Periodic sequences
A sequence x[n] satisfying

is called a periodic sequence with a
period N where N is a positive integer and
.k is any integer
Smallest value of N satisfying

is called the fundamental period
PERIODIC EXPONENTIALS
Sinusoidal sequence and complex

exponential sequence are periodic
sequences of period N only if with N &

r positive integers
Smallest value of N satisfying

is the fundamental period of the sequence
r = 1 → one sinusoid cycle per N samples

r > 1 → r cycles per N samples
*
Symmetry of periodic sequences
An N-point finite-length sequence xf [n] defines a periodic
:sequence
”n modulo N“
Symmetry of xf [n] is not defined because xf [n] is

undefined for n < 0
:Define Periodic Conjugate Symmetric
Sampling sinusoids
:Sampling a sinusoid is ambiguous

Aliasing
E.g., for
all (integer) r appear the same after sampling

We say that a larger ! Appears aliased to a lower
frequency
‫؛‬:Principal value for discrete-time frequency
)i.e., less than 1/2 cycle per sample (

exercise
exercise

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Digital Signal Processing

E.g., sound: air pressure variation at a point as a function of time

Noise - all domains

Origin in analog electronics e.g. radar

DSP = signal processing on a computer

Two effects: discrete-time, discrete level

p(t) process q(t)

:Speech time-scale modification

Discrete time signal often obtained by sampling a

…Sequence {x[n]} = xa(nT), n=…-1,0,1,2

:Can write a sequence by listing values

Arrow indicates where n=0

Thus, X[-1] =-0.2 , X[0]=2.2 , X[1]=0.2

N1 ≤ n ≤ N2: Finite length (length = …)

Can always extend with zero-padding

Adder x[n] + y[n]

y[n] = x[n] + w[n]

y[n] = x[n] * w[n]

Time-shifting operation: y[n]=x[n-N]

if N < 0, it is an advance operation

y[n]=a1x[n]+ a2x[n-1]+ a3x[n-2]

Certain operations change the effective

Up-sampling = adding more samples

X [n] 3 y[n] = x[3n]

Up-sampling is the converse of downsampling: L-1 zero

!not inverse of down-sampling

* When adding, real

:Flips imaginary part / negates phase

:Useful in resolving to real quantities

Finite/infinite (extent in n)*

:Conjugate symmetric sequence

,When signals are real

:Unit sample sequence

: Can express any sequence with

:Unit step sequence

:Relate to unit sample

Exponential sequences are eigenfunctions of LTI systems

:If A and are a real (and positive)

: Constants A, can be complex

Complex exponential sequence can 'project down’ onto

A sequence x[n] satisfying

Smallest value of N satisfying

Sinusoidal sequence and complex

sequences of period N only if with N &

Smallest value of N satisfying

r = 1 → one sinusoid cycle per N samples

Symmetry of xf [n] is not defined because xf [n] is

:Sampling a sinusoid is ambiguous

all (integer) r appear the same after sampling

)i.e., less than 1/2 cycle per sample (

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