AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND

COMMUNICATION
 Definition of Extension

• A non-formal education process

• Unlike formal education programs, extension does
not have a classroom and prescribed courses of study
• Curriculum is based on the needs of people it serves

(Antonio & Stuart)

 Definition of Extension
• The extending of, or a service or system which extends, the
educational advantages of an institutions to person unable
to avail themselves of them in a normal manner (Maunder,
1972)
• A general term that has to come all rural development work
• An organized service designed to improve the living
conditions of farmers, homemakers and other rural people
by teaching them to adopt better and improved methods and
practices in their farming pursuits, homemaking practices,
and for better community living (Flores, et al., 1983)
 Extension: Review of Definition
• First used to describe adult education programs in England in the
second half of the 19th Century

• These programs helped to expand or extend the work of Universities

beyond the campus and into the neighboring community

• The term was later adopted in the United States of America, while in
Britain, it was replaced with ADVISORY SERVICE in he 2oth Century

• A number of other terms are used in different parts of the world to

describe the concept
 Extension: Review of Definition
• The Term Extension has a wide variety of meanings and
interpretations
• Too often extension becomes what a person wants to be
• There is no single definition of extension that captures all
the possible variations of the term
• Therefore, meaning of extension lies in the eye of the
beholder
 Meanings and Terminologies

• EXTENSION-was first used to describe adult education

programs organized by Oxford and Cambridge
universities in England in 1867
• 1840’s- the term University Extension was first used in
Britain
• 1871- James Stuart ( father of University Extension)
- A fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge
- He organized Center of extension lectures under
university’s supervision
• 1872- University of Cambridge adopted the System
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION

• 1876- University of London adopted the system

• 1878- University of Oxford adopted the system
• 1880’s- Extension system became Extension Movement
• 1841- the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society
(RAIS) in Britain was founded
• 1845- The outbreak of potato blight in Europe (Ireland)
caused by Phytophthora infestans
• 1890’s- Universities incorporated agricultural subjects
in their lectures
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION

• 1862- Morill Act by Pres. Lincon, creation of Land Grant

Colleges and Universities and Establishment of
demonstration centers/experimental stations
• 1890- second Morill Act- which extended Land-Grant
concept in other areas of the USA
• 1914- Smith-Lever Act- establishment of the Cooperative
Extension Services ( a tripartite cooperation between the
federal government, the state government and the local
county government in association with SUCs as extension
agency
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES

• Spanish Regime- agricultural extension started by the

Spanish regime with the GRANJAS MODELOS OR
MODEL FARM
• Granjas Modelos-experimental or demonstration centers
for farmers during the 19th century, initiated by the first
Spanish missionaries to educate rice, corn and tobacco
farmers in large encomiendas
• April 30, 1902- BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE was
established under the department of Interior
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES
• July 1910- Demonstration and Extension Division was created
under the Bureau of Agriculture
- Bureau of Agriculture was created to expand extension
services, with the Administrative Division doing the extension service
program
- setting up several Experiment Station and Demonstration
Farms in strategic places of the country
1910- establishment of Agricultural Schools to educate and train government
agricultural workers and others engaged in agriculture.
July 1919- Demonstration and Extension Division expanded its work to
include farmer’s cooperative, rural credit, marketing and animal insurance
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES
• 1923- Demonstration and Extension Division was changed to
Agricultural Extension Services
-Home Extension Work was started in the Division of Organic
Chemistry of the Bureau of Soils mainly on Food Preservation
-Maria Y. Orasa founded the Home Extension Service
• 1929- Bureau of Agriculture split into Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI)
and the Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI)
- Agricultural Extension Division was placed under the Bureau of
Plant Industry (BAI) and renamed Agricultural Division in 1932 until the
assumption of Manuel L. Quezon, President of Commonwealth in
1938
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES
• The Bell Survey Mission Recommendation- to consolidate the
scattered extension services organizations in the different
bureaus (BPI, BAI, BS, etc.) into one Bureau that would
adequately extend information to farm families for improved
farming, home making, and rural organization.
• July 16, 1952- the Bureau of Agricultural Extension (BAEx) was
created by virtue of R.A. 680. The BAEx consolidated all existing
extension services being carried out by different offices.
• 1963- The BAEx was changed into Agriculture Productivity
Commission (APC) through R.A. 3844 or Land Reform Code.
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES
• 1965- The Rice Self-Sufficiency Program was re-conceptualized to
include rice production, marketing and distribution and consolidation
and concentration or governments and private sector resources.
• 1967- R.A. No. 188 BAEX functions were decentralized and granted
autonomous powers to the Local Government unit to appoint their
respective provincial agriculturist and municipal extension workers
• 1969- National Food and Agricultural Council (NFAC) emerged by
virtue of E.O. 183. NFAC was given full control of the food
production program and controlled a large portion of the funds for
agriculture and funds.
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES

• Presidential Decree No. 1 and Presidential Letter of

Implementation No. 9, reverted APC to original name,
BAEx (Nov. 1, 1972) and its control was returned to
Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources through
P.D. 970 abolishing the Farm Management Office of DAR
transferring its function to BAEx. Presidential Decree 970
abolished the bureau of Farm Management of the DAR,
extension function was transferred to BAEx.
• July 1, 1973- the BAEx was transferred back to DA. The
Abaca and others Fibers Board was fused with BAEx
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES
• 1977- World Bank Mission appraised the Philippines’ Agricultural
Extension Service upon request of the Philippine government.
-The Philippines adopted the Training and Visit System (T&V)
which evolved into a development strategy designed to improve the
quality of life of farm families through a pool of resources.
• March 27, 1979- National Extension Project (NEP) became
operational with a World Bank loan of USD 35M.
• 1978- P.D. No. 1579 created ministry-wide regional offices in the
Ministry of Agriculture Appoint of 12 ministry-wide regional
directors and 24 asst. regional directors, and 75 PAOs in 1980
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES
• 1978- EO No. 967- renamed the Ministry of Agriculture into the
Ministry of Agriculture and Food (MAF) and transferred the BFAR
from the Ministry of Natural Resources to MAF
• 1982- EO No. 803 designating the province as the political unit of
management for inducing agricultural development
-RA 5185 (Decentralization Act)- the provincial government were
empowered to have their own extension services
1987- EO No. 116 BAEx, Agricultural Training Council and the
Philippine Training Center for Rural Development were emerged into
the Agricultural Training Institute (ATI). The “BIRTH” of the ATI was the
“DEATH” of the BAEx
 HISTORY OF EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES
• 1991- enactment of R.A. No. 7160, the Local Government Code. The code
decentralized authority to Local Government Units (LGUs) the management
and supervision of agricultural extension system of the country.
• RA 8435-Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA)
Major Concerns of AFMA
1. Food security
2. Poverty alleviation and social equity
3. Income enhancement and profitability especially for farmers and fisher folks
4. Global competitiveness
5. Sustainability
 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE

• June 23, 1898- creation of the Department of Agriculture

and Manufacturing
• Homestead Law- every Filipino citizen has the opportunity
to acquire at least 24 hectares of land
• Torrens Act- safeguard of all tiles to cultivate lands owned
by private persons
• 1902- creation of Bureau of agriculture, now the Bureau of
Plant Industry to promote agriculture
 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
• President Manuel L. Quezon
- Division of Soil Survey was created to undertake soil and
agronomical survey
-People were encourage to go into business relating agriculture
especially in Mindanao where climate is favorable fro crops
• President Jose P. Laurel
-The period of “Rude Awakening” realization that the Philippines
did not raise enough food for the people and was not self-sufficient
and have been completely dependent upon other countries for the
deficiency in rice and other cereals.
 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
• President Manuel A. Roxas
-Parity Rights to the Americans-the disposition, exploitation,
development, and utilization of all agricultural, timber and mineral lands
of the public domain
-Rehabilitation Finances Corporation (RFC now known as
Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP) for the rehabilitation and
development of agriculture among others.
• President Elpidio Quirino
-Bureau of Agricultural Extension
-Made the rice industry the first commodity sector to have and
integrated national planning
 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE

• President Elpidio Quirino..continuation

-intensive rehabilitation of rice, corn, tobacco, fiber,
sugar, livestock, fishery and mining industries
-Rural Bank Act-organization of a system of rural banks
with substantial capital participation of the government
-Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing Administration
(ACCFA) authorized to organize the Farmers Cooperative
Marketing Associations (FACOMAS)
 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
• President Ramon Magsaysay
-Philippine became a member of United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
(UN-FAO)
-National Rice and Corn Program launched along with Rice and Corn Coordinating
Council
-Rice and Corn Coordinating Council forerunner of the National Food and Agriculture
Council (NFAC) now known as National Food and Agriculture Council (NFAC) now
known as National Agriculture and Fishery Council (NAFC)
• President Carlos P. Garcia
- Austery Program urged the people to lead simple lives and do away with
luxurious lifestyles
-Filipino First Policy encourage the people to patronize Philippine-made
products and promote Filipino labor
 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
• President Disodado Macapagal
-International Rice Research Institute-established in UPLB
-Focus to solve the problem of the sugar industry
• President Ferdinand Marcos
-RA 6389 automatic conversion of share tenancy to leasehold and
retention rate of 75-24 hectares must be lowered and the creation of DAR
-Masagana 99 program with massive dispersal of modern package of
technology including High Yielding Varieties, fertilizers and pesticides
-Replanting Program for Coconut
-Sugar industry provides the country with a stable flow of foreign
exchange earnings and employment for Filipinos
 PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
• President Corazon Aquino
-Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP)
• President Fidel V. Ramos
-MDATP (Medium Term Agricultural Development Program)
-GPEP (Grains Production Enhancement Program)
-KCCDP (Key Commercial Crops Development Program)
-MTLDP (Medium Term Livestock Development Program)
-MTFMDP (Medium Term Fisheries Management Development
Program
 MEANING OF EXTENSION IN OTHER COUNTRIES
TERM COUNTRY MEANING
VOORLICHTING Netherlands Lighting the pathway ahead to help people find their way
PENYULUHAN Indonesia Lighting the way ahead with a torch
PERKEMBANGAN Malaysia Education, the way USA interprets it
BERATUNG Germany “Advisory work”-an expert can give advice on the best way to reach
one’s goal but leaves the person the final responsibility for selecting the
way

AUFKLARUNG Germany “Enlightenment” so that one knows clearly where he/she is going

ERZIEHUNG Germany “Education” that is to teach people to solve their problems themselves

FORDERUNG Austria “Furthering” or stimulating one to go in a desirable direction

VULGARISATION France Simplification of the message for the common man

CAPACITACION Spain Improving people’s abilities, normally through training
EXTENSION USA Education, or influencing people to change their behavior
 PHILISOPHY

• The body of principles underlying a given branch of

learning or major discipline, a religious system, a human
activity or the like
• A guide to a person’s action
• A view of life-what ought to be and its components of
“what is” and how to bridge the gap“ between “what is”
and “what ought to be”
 PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

WHAT OUGHT TO BE ( The ideal view of life)

(What the people should or could be as a result of the extension program/activities expressed in
objectives

How to bridge the gap (the

educational means to attain
The Gap (the problem area or the objectives-methods
needs of the people) procedure used in relation to
needs of the people that have
to addresses by extension

WHAT IS
(The present state of the people/client in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes, etc. they
posses, their resources, present level of living, and ithers
 PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

• Extension is based on the philosophy that rural people

are intelligent, capable and desirous of receiving
information and making use of it for their individual and
community welfare. It assumes that direct approach to
people is required.
• Extension starts where people are and with what the
have. Improvement can begin from there.
• The classroom is where the people are: on the farms, in
their home and villages
 PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

• Extension programs are based on the needs of people

and are decided upon by the people
• People learn to do by doing
• Extension works with people and through people. Local
leaders are trained by extension workers to extent
information to others
• Education is carried on either with groups of people or
with individuals
 PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

• The spirit of self-help is essential for democratic living

• Extension thus involves working with people where they
are, building on what they have and adding to what they
know
 STRUCTURE OF PHILOSOPHY

1. Beliefs- one’s mental convictions, view of the world, or

acceptance of something true or actual.
2. Ethics- the basic principles of right actions/conduct as
defined by profession, society and nation, also referred
to as the ideal of conduct.
3. Values- something regarded as desirable, worthy, or
right. The intensity or degree of valuing something may
change in time.
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION

• Principle
 A statement of policy to guide decision and action in a
consistent manner
 Universal truth that has been observed and found to be
truth and settled rule of action
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension works with people, not for them
 The aim of extension is not to provide personal services but to work
with people and to trach them how to do things for themselves
 Only the people themselves can make the decisions about the way
they will farm or live-not the extension agent
 Rural people can make wise decisions if they are given full
information including alternative solutions-by making decisions
people gain self-confidence
 People have more confidence in programs and decisions which
have made themselves than in those which are imposed upon
them
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension is accountable to its clients
 Extension agents are accountable to their senior and to the government
department that determines rural development policies
 Extension is the servant of the rural people and has the responsibility to
fulfill the needs of the people in its area
 One measure of effectiveness is how well policies and plans are carried
out
 Another measure of effectiveness is the extent to which incomes and living
standards of the rural people have increased as a result of extension work
 Extension therefore is based on the people’s needs, as well as on
technical and national economic needs-extension agent’s task is to bring
these needs together
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension works with different target group
 Extension recognizes that not all farmers in one area have the same
problems
 Different groups need to be identified and that agent need to develop
programs appropriate to each group
 In the past, efforts were concentrated on progressive farmer who was
expected to spread the new idea-nut this does not always work
because progressive farmers have different problems, they usually
have more land, education and more involved in marketing their
produce
 Smallest and poorest farmers will need particular attention-they may
lack needed resources to become involved in extension activities
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension is a two-way link
 Extension is not a one-way process in which agent
transfer knowledge and ideas to farmers and their
families
 Advices/information are often based upon the findings of
agricultural and other research stations
 Extension should be ready to receive farmer’s ideas,
suggestions or advice
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension is a two-way link
 When the problem is being identified
 Extension agent can help research workers to
understand the farming problems of the area and the
limitations under which farmers have to work
 It is even better if the agent can bring researchers into
direct contact with farmers in order to ensure that
research recommendations are relevant to farmers’
needs
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension is a two-way link
 When recommendations are being tested in the field
 A new farm practice of crop variety might produce good
results at a research station but do not so well on
farmer’s field
 Trail on farmer’s field are an opportunity to test research
recommendations and provide feedback for research
staff
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension is a two-way link
 When farmers put recommendation into practice
 Sometimes farmers discover problems with a
recommendation which the research station field to note
 With the feedback, the recommendations can be
adjusted accordingly
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension cooperates with other rural development organization
 Within the rural areas, extension services and agents should
work closely with the other organizations that provide essential
services to farmers and their families
 Extension is only one aspect of the many economic, social and
political activities that seek to produce change for the better in
rural society
 Extension must be prepared to collaborate with all other such
organizations both government and non0government and to
take them into account when preparing to implement extension
policies
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension cooperates with other rural development
organizations
 Political Institution
 Including political leaders whose active local support will
help the extension agent, who may thereby be brought
into closer touch with local farmers
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension cooperates with other rural development
organizations
 Support organization
 Such as those which supply agricultural or other inputs,
credit facilities or marketing services
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension cooperates with other rural development
organizations
 Health services
 So that extension agent is kept aware of local health
problems, particularly nutrition levels
 Agricultural development and nutrition are closely
related and the agent must keep closely in touch with
health programs and projects and adapt this program to
conform to local health requirements
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension cooperates with other rural development
organizations
 Local schools
 So that the agent can have early access to the farmers
of the future, and begin to equip them with the
knowledge and skilled required for farming
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Extension cooperates with other rural development
organizations
 Community development
 Whose objectives will be very similar to the educational
work of extension
 Extension agents often work very closely with
community development workers to break down local
social and cultural barriers to change, and to encourage
community action programs
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of cultural differences
 People differ in thinking, living and culture
 Extension education methods should be in line with these
differences
 It is difficult to recognize non-material culture than material
culture
 The blue print of extension program for one are may not
suit to others areas
 Changes will have to be made in the programs according to
changing situations
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of cultural change

 Culture undergoes change due to extension

 Change occurs otherwise also
 Extension workers should gain the confidence of people
 Extension workers should organize result demonstration
 After increasing production, the extension workers should
concentrate on marketing
 Extension workers have to change to meet the cultural
changes among the people
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of grass-root approach

 Extension workers should pay attention to all the groups’

needs and interests
 Imposed innovations have no relevance to group
 People will accept the innovations only when the find
those useful
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of interest and needs

 People should voluntarily participate

 Work should start from interest and needs of people
 Fulfillment of needs create interests
 First concentrate on felt needs and then develop felt
needs
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of participation

 Attachment will not develop by offering ready made

things
 Participation develops leadership and increases
confidence
 Involving leaders increases people’s participation
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of adaptability in the use of teaching methods

 People differ in knowledge and understanding

 Method should vary accordingly
 Use of more than one method is beneficial
 If needed new methods must be devised to meet new
situations
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of leadership

 Extension workers should utilize local leadership for

increasing speed of work
 Identification, training and encouragement of leaders is
necessary
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of trained specialist

 Agricultural and other sciences are developing speedily

 Maintaining competency in any of these is a continuous process
 Without specialist support the extension cannot strive
 Subjects matter specialist (SMS) is responsible to solve the
extension workers problem
 Subjects matter specialist (SMS) is a link between research and
application of research
 SMS should have broad outlook and be well versed
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of satisfaction

 The extension programs should give satisfaction to the

people
 People will not participate if they do not get satisfaction
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of whole-family approach

 Extension work should reach all the family members

 Neglecting any member may result in rejection of
innovations
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of evaluation

 Determining the research results in unbiased way is

necessary
 Intermittent review of progress is necessary
 Corrective measures are needed if the direction is found
wrong
 Behavioral changes should be measured
 Evaluation helps in improving the quality of work
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of applied science and democracy

 People have freedom to accept or reject the technology

 Applied agricultural science is a two way process
 PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
• Principle of cooperation

 Extension program are for the people by the people

 The idea behind the extension work is the coming together of the
rural people and the extension workers for social upliftment
 The extension programs should be the people’s program with
government aid
 Most members of the village community will willingly co-operative
in carrying out a project
 All should co-operate and help each other for this task pf social
upliftment
URPOSE OF EXTENSION
• Informative extension

 Helps people make well-considered choices among

alternatives provided by extension for the individual to
achieve his/her goals
 PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
• Emancipatory extension

 An instrument to uplift the poor, to achieve societal

goals, to correct structural problems
 Paolo Freire calls it pedagogy of the oppressed
 PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
• Formative extension

 An instrument for developing, “forming” an individual or

enhancing his/her capabilities to make decisions to
learn, to manage, to communicate, to organize, etc.
 PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
• Persuasive extension

 A policy instrument to induce preventive behavior with

respect to societal concerns such as environmental
pollution, hazards, vandalisms, drug addictions, rape,
etc. such preventive behavior is in the interest of the
society as a whole or the future generation
 PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
• Transfer of technology

 Extension aims to retail, transmit or otherwise

communicate knowledge, usually results of research
 Main objective is to give client end users or practitioners
updated knowledge and tested practices
 PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
• Assistance in decision making

 Extension helps clients make effective decisions

 Clients are trained to make decisions that are well-
informed in things like market outlets, prices, crop
processing and storage
 PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
• Social Support System

 Extension activities create social situations favorable to

the acceptance of innovations, especially when these
ideas or practices are the initial stage of acceptance
 Encouraging companions
 Energize farmers to generate momentum among them
 FOUR MAJOR PARADIGMS OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

1. Technology Transfer- this is a Training and Visit type of extension

model. Also a Top-down model primarily delivers specific
recommendations from research, especially for the staple food crops,
to all types of farmers. (large, medium, and small)
2. Advisory Services- both public extension workers and private-sector
firms respond to specific farmers inquires about particular production
problems.
3. Non-Formal Education (NFE)- gave training to rural people who could
not afford or did not have access to formal training in vocational and
technical agriculture trainings. It focuses on technical skills such as
IPM through FFS
4. Facilitation Extension- the front-line extension agents work as
“knowledge brokers” in facilitating-learning process of rural people.
 NATURE OR DIMENSION OF EXTENSION

Behavioral Dimension-Extension is aimed at inducing

behavioral changes among farmers. This makes behavioral
change the end goal of extension. If farmers has no changed
his behavior (for his betterment) no extension has been done
Technology Dimension- extension helps in the transfer of
technology. Extension should be able to identify technologies
appropriate to clientele.
Research Dimension-extension aims at linking research with
farmers. Ways to foster closer links between the farmers and
the researchers need further understanding.
 NATURE OR DIMENSION OF EXTENSION

Input Dimension-provision of technical inputs plays an

important linking function in the transfer of technology.
Requires that extension professional be knowledgeable of
these technical inputs
Income Dimension- extension is aimed at increased income
for the farmer through increased production and productivity.
Management Dimension- extension aims to function
according to sound management principles. Hence, requiring
that the extension professional be a good manager.
METHODS FOR INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOR
1. Advice (used if)- farmers agree with the extension agent about
the nature of their problems and the criteria for choosing the
“correct” solution.
2. Compulsion or Coersion- party forcing somebody to do
something. Has power and authority ( Government Rules and
Laws, people has no choice but to abide).
3. Exchange-exchange of goods and services between two
individuals or groups. Only applicable if, both parties consider
transaction to be their favor.
4. Openly Influencing Farmer’s Knowledge Level and Attitude-
applicable if we believe that farmers can’t solve his/her own
problems because he/she has insufficient or incorrect knowledge
and/or because his/her attitude does not match his/her goals
METHODS FOR INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOR
5. Manipulation- influence farmer’s knowledge level and attitude without
farmer being aware of it. Possible if we believe, it is necessary and
desirable for farmer to change his/her behavior in certain direction.
6. Providing Means- applicable if farmer is trying to achieve goals which
the extension agent considered to be appropriate and farmer does not
have the means available to achieve these goals or does not wish to
risk using these means
7. Providing Service- may involve taking over certain tasks from farmers,
possible when, we have knowledge and/or means available to
perform the task better or more economically that farmers.
8. Changing Farmer’s Social and/or Economic Structure- we agree with
farmer that he/she could perform optimally, possible if we are in
position and have the power or by conviction
COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION
 COMMUNICATION

• Comes from the Latin word “communis”

meaning to make common or to establish
commonness between two or more people
• Process by which a source sends a message to
a receiver by means of some channel in order
to produce a response from the receiver, in
accordance to the intention of the source
 Key Points in the Definition

• Communication is a process ( it is on-going, cyclic, ever-

changing, with no beginning or end, interdependent,
interrelated)
• Consists of five basic elements (source, message,
receiver, channel, response/feedback)
• Effectiveness is achieved if the receiver’s response
matches the intention of source
• Has four attributes (dynamic, systematic, interaction
thru symbols, meaning is personally constructed
 Four Attributes

• Dynamic- has ever changing character, fluctuates constantly,

never fixed, no clear beginnings and endings
• Systemic- as a system, in consists of a group of elements
which interact to influence each other and the system as a
whole
• Interaction thru symbols- essential in communication that
what symbols we select and how they are organized affect
other’s interpretation of our message
• Meaning is personally constructed- no two people construct
the same meaning even if they hear or see the same thing
 Filed of Experience

• The sum total on an individual’s experiences which

influences his ability to communicate
• Example: two overlapping circles representing the
field of experience of communication participants A
and B; the overlap of the two circles represents the
common field of experience of A and B or their shared
similar experience
 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

• Source- sends message/information to receiver

Characteristics of source
 Credibility- refers to a set of perception about the source
held by receiver in terms of competence, trustworthiness
and dynamism
 Homophily- refers to the degree to which a receiver
perceives the source as similar to him in certain attributes
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Dimension of Credibility
• Character- when a source is perceived as honest,
trustworthy, friendly, reliable, pleasant, warm, etc. his or
her credibility is based on the character dimension
• Competence- well trained, competent, intelligent,
experienced, witty, bright etc.
• Composure- self-confidence poise, dignity, level-
headedness, etc
• Dynamism-when a receiver rates a source in terms of
being bold, aggressive, extrovert etc.
 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
• Message- sign or symbol that has meaning to both sender and
receiver, actual physical product from the source encoding
• Channel- the medium through which the message is sent from
the source to the receiver
• Receiver- the object to whom the message is directed; the
person who decodes the message, including the filtering of
channel noise and interpreting of the message
• Feedback- the check on how successful we have been in
transferring our messages as originally intended; seeks to
determine whether understanding has been acheived
Message Factors
• Code-symbols used in communicating, both sender and
receiver should understand in order to communicate
• Content- the idea or substance selected to express the
purpose of the source for communicating
• Treatment-the manner by which the materials are
arranged in order to be meaningful to the receiver.
 PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
• Goal: to change the behavior (ie. Knowledge, attitude, skills and
practice)
• Specifically:
 Inform- aims at making the people aware and let them know certain thing
 Bring about greater understanding
 Motivate- to encourage to stimulate clientele into action
 Persuade- aims at influencing the feeling, thoughts and behavior of
listeners
 Learn a new skill
 Change or adopt a new practice
 Entertain
 LEVEL OF COMMUNICATION

• Intrapersonal- is communication with oneself

• Interpersonal- is the interaction between two or more
individuals
• Organizational- when it operates within an organization
structure or bureaucracy
• Mass- when the message is channeled through a public
forum, use of mass media
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Categories of Non-verbal Communication
1. Physical-the personal type of communication, includes facial
expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell,
and body motions
2. Aesthetic- the type of communication that takes place through
creative expressions, playing instrumental music, dancing,
painting and sculpturing
3. Signs- the mechanical type of communication, which includes
the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns and sirens.
4. Symbolic- the type of communication that makes use of
religious, status, or ego-building symbols
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Dimension of Meaning
1. Denotative or referential meaning- the relationship
between a word-sign and an object or the sign-object
relationship
2. Connotative meaning- meaning associated with the
personal experiences of the person using the word
They think about the denotation of a word – its dictionary meaning and
the connotation – the implied meanings and associations when choosing words.
Denotation is the literal meaning of a word
Connotation is adding attitude to a word
Example. “She’s my baby.” Denotation infant Connotation girl friend
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Mode of Encoding and Decoding Message
• Seem, heard, touched (felt), smelled and tasted
 Interpersonal Channels- face to face interaction between
people.
 Gate keeper- controls the flow of information, decides to
whom the information be transmitted, evaluates the
relevance and value to the potential receivers, has the
power to delete, later, add, subtract or distort the message
 Opinion-leader- a person who is approached by others for
advice on certain matters, credible, influential, authoritative
in the community
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Forms of Communication
1. Verbal –written or spoken
2. Non-verbal
Visual Communications
3. Posture-the ways we stand or carry ourselves speaks so much of
our personality
4. Gestures and Body Movements- raising hands, nodding, shaking
the head etc.
5. Facial expression- movement of the eyebrows and mouth
6. Eye movement- “the eyes are the windows of the soul”
7. Proxemics- communicating by the use of space in relation to other
people
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Visual Communications
6. Geographic location- the position of the interactants during
a communication situation shows the kind of relationship
between speaker and listener.
7. Time- a person’s observation of time reveals a lot about
his personality (punctuality, tardiness)
8. Artifacts-things or objects put on the body speaks so much
of ourselves
9. Physical characteristics- color of one’s skin, the size and
shape of one’s body, color of one’s hair or eyes convey a
message
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Auditory Communications
1. Silence- “silence speaks louder than words”
2. Paralanguage- non-verbal features in speech such as
intonation, pitch, loudness, intensity
3. Tactile-communication through touch, conveying feeling
without words
• Olfactory-communication that refers to smell
• Gustatory-communication that refers to taste
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Auditory Communications
1. Silence- “silence speaks louder than words”
2. Paralanguage- non-verbal features in speech such as
intonation, pitch, loudness, intensity
3. Tactile-communication through touch, conveying feeling
without words
• Olfactory-communication that refers to smell
• Gustatory-communication that refers to taste
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
5. FEEDBACK- Information that is sent or fed back by the
receiver intentionally or unintentionally to the sources
Type of Responses
a. Cognitive Effect- knowledge, awareness, thought and skills
b. Neutralization- shifting of an existing attitude to the neutral
zone
c. Boomerang Effect- a shift opposite to that direction that is
intended
d. Conservation- maintenance of existing attitude
e. Attitude reinforcement or strengthening of exiting attitude
f. Shift to the opposite sign, from (+) to (-) and vise versa
Barriers to effective Communication

• Encoding Barriers- the process of selecting and

organizing symbols to represent a message requires skill
and knowledge. Obstacles can interfere with an effective
message
• Transmitting Barriers- things that get in the way of
message transmission are sometimes called “noise”.
Communication may be difficult because of noise and
some problems
• Decoding Barriers- the communication cycle may be
break down at the receiving end for some of these
reasons
 Encoding Barriers
• Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver. A breakdown of communication may result
when a message is not adapted to its receiver. Recognizing the receiver’s
needs, status, knowledge of the successful message. If a customer is angry,
for example, an effective response may be just to listen to the person for a
while.
• Lack of Basic Communication Skills. The receiver is less likely to
understand the message if the sender has trouble choosing to precise words
needed and arranging those words in a grammatically-correct sentence
• Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject- if the sender lacks specific
information about something, the receiver will likely receive an unclear or
mixed message. Have you shopped for an item such a computer and
experienced how some sales people can explain complicated terms and ideas
in a simple way? Other cannot
 Encoding Barriers

• Information Overload- if you receive a message with too much

information, you may tend to put up a barrier because the amount of
information is coming so fast that you may have difficulty comfortably
interpreting that information. If you are selling an item with twenty-five
terrific features, pick two or three important features to emphasize instead
of overwhelming your receiver with an information rush.
• Emotional Interference. An emotional individual may not be able to
communicate well. If someone is angry, hostile, resentful, joyful, or fearful,
that person maybe too preoccupied with emotions to receive the intended
message. If you don’t like someone, for example, may you have trouble
“hearing” them
 Transmitting Barriers
• Physical Distractions. A bad cellular phone line or a noisy restaurant
can destroy communication. If an email message or letter is not
formatted properly, or if it contains grammatical spelling and errors, the
receiver may not be able to concentrate on the message because the
physical appearance of the letter or email is sloppy and unprofessional
• Conflicting Message. Messages that causes a conflict in perception
for the receiver may result in complete communication. For example of
conflicting messages might be if supervisor requests a report
immediately without giving the report writer enough time to gather the
proper information. Does the report writer emphasize speed in writing
report, or accuracy in gathering the data?
 Transmitting Barriers

• Channel Barriers. If the sender chooses an inappropriate

channel of communication may cease. Detailed
instructions presented over the telephone, for example,
may be frustrating for both communicators. If you are on a
computer technical support help line discussing a
problem, it would be helpful for you to be sitting in front of
a computer, as opposed to taking notes from support staff
and returning to you computer station
 Decoding Barriers
• Lack of Interest. If a message reaches a reader who is not interested in the
messages, the reader may read the message hurriedly or listen to the
message carelessly, miscommunication may result.
• Lack of Knowledge. If a receiver is unable to understand a message filled
with a technical information, communication will breakdown. Unless a
computer user knows something about Windows environment for example,
the user may have difficulty organizing files if given technical instructions.
• Lack of Communication Skills. Those who have weak reading and listening
skills make ineffective receivers. On the other hand, those who have a good
professional vocabulary and who concentrate on listening, have less trouble
hearing and interpreting good communication. Many people tune out who is
talking and mentally rehears what they are going to say in return
 Decoding Barriers
• Emotional Distractions. If emotions interfere with the creation and
transmission of a message, they can also disrupt reception. If you
receive a report from your supervisor regarding proposed changes in
work procedures and you do not particularly like you supervisor, you
may have trouble even reading the report objectively. You may read, not
objectively, but find fault. You may misinterpret words and read negative
impressions between the lines. Consequently, you are likely to
misunderstand part or all of the report.
• Physical Distractions. If a receiver of a communication works in an area
with bright lights, glare on computer screen, loud noises, excessively
hot or cold work spaces, or physical ailments that receiver will probably
experience communication breakdown on regular basis.
 Reporting Barriers
• No Provision for Feedback. Since communication is a two-way process, the
sender must search for a means of getting a response from the receiver. If a
team leader does not permit any interruptions nor questions while discussing
projects, he may find that team members my not completely understand what
they have to do. Fac-to-face oral communication is considered best type of
communication since feedback can both verbal and non-verbal. When two
communicators are separated, care must be taken to ask meaningful feedback.
• Inadequate Feedback. Delayed or judgmental feedback can interfere with good
communication. If your supervisor gives you instruction in long, compound-
complex sentences without giving you a chance to speak, you may pretend to
understand the instructions so you can leave the stress of the conversation.
Because you may not fully understood the intended instructions, your
performance may suffer.
 Barriers to Effective Communication
1. Perception- “people interpret or see things differently”
2. Language-”jargon” waffle, nonsense
3. Semantics-”watch that word meanings!”
4. Inflictions- “the emphasis is where”
5. Personal interests-”I, me and myself”
6. Emotions-”watch out for the red flag”
7. Pre-conceived notion-”I thought you meant”
8. Attention-”physically present, mentally absent”
9. Wordiness-”what is it that you want to say”
10.Inferences-”I thought you said”
• Noise- anything that interferes with or hinders the transmission and
reception of a message
 Communication Model
BERLO’S COMMUNICATION MODEL ( S M C R E )

SOURCE MESSAGE CHANNEL RECEIVER EFFECT

Definitions
• Approach- embraces the entire spectrum of the process, within an
approach there can be several methods
• Method- it is a procedural consisting of a series of actions arrange
logically for the smooth flow of operation
• Technique- it is a particular trick, strategy, individual artistry of the
teachers/EW.
• Extension Approach- an organized and coherent combination of
strategies and methods, to make the extension effective.
 DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION
1. Downward Communication- the flow of information
transmits from higher to lower position. It is base in the
assumption that the people working in higher levels
have the authority to communicate to the people
working at lower levels.
2. Upward Communication- a communication that travels
from the lower position to the higher position. The
functions of upward communication is to send
information, suggestions, complaints and grievance of
the lower level workers to the managers above.
 DIRECTION OF COMMUNICATION
3. Horizontal/Lateral Communication- the flow of
communication is transmitted laterally, within the same
level. The main use of dimension of communication is
to maintain coordination and review activities assigned
in various subordinates.
4. Diagonal or crosswise communication- takes place
when people working at the same level interact with
those working at a higher level or lower level of
organizational hierarchy and across the boundaries of
their reporting relationship.
The Adoption and
Diffusion Process
Definition of Concepts

• ADOPTION – the process by which a particular farmer

is exposed, considers, and finally practices or accepts a
particular innovation (Mosher, 1978).
• INNOVATION – an idea, practice or an object
perceived as new by an individual. It is a new way of doing
something (Valera, 1987).
• DIFFUSION – the process of spreading
technology/information from one agency to another, from
one person to another person; from one group to another
group, from generation to generation.
Definition of Concepts

• TECHNOLOGY – the body of tools, machines,

materials, techniques, and processes used to produce
goods and services and satisfy human needs.
• INNOVATION-DECISION PROCESS – the
process through which an individual (or other decision-
making unit) passes from first knowledge of an innovation to
forming an attitude towards it, to a decision to adopt or
reject, to implementation of the idea and to confirmation of
this decision.
Characteristics of an Innovation that Determine Its
Adoption

1. Relative advantage- the degree to which a farmer

recognizes an innovation as better than the idea or
practice he/she is currently practicing.
2. Compatibility- the degree to which a farmer perceives
the innovation/new idea to be consistent with his socio-
cultural values and beliefs, and with previously
introduced ideas and felt needs.
Characteristics of an Innovation that Determine Its
Adoption

3. Complexity-the degree to which a farmer can

understand and follow an innovation.
4. Trialability- the degree to which an innovation can be
experimented or duplicated on small scale
5. Observability- the degree to which the results of an
innovation can easily be observed by the farmers
Stages of the Adoption Process

AWARENESS
I NTEREST
E VALUATION
T RIAL
A DOPTION
Stages of the Adoption Process

1. AWARENESS
• The first step towards adoption of an
innovation.
• The individual farmer
becomes aware that the
technology or an
innovation exists.
Stages of the Adoption Process
2. INTEREST
• The farmer becomes personally interested in
the new technology and seeks more information.

• Occurs when a person comes to

believe that the innovation might be
possible for him.
• A person seeks more factual
information about the idea. He
wants to know what it is, how it
works, what is its potential.
Stages of the Adoption Process
3. EVALUATION
• The person shows a marked interest in the
idea as it applies to him, his operations, or his
family.
• The farmer evaluates the
technology within his
conditions, expectations,
resources, and management ,
and decides whether or not to
try it.

• A “mental trial” of the

innovation where the farmers
tries it out in his imagination.
Stages of the Adoption Process

4. TRIAL
• The individual has weighed the advantages
and the risks involved, and if the idea is divisible
into small segments, is willing to try the idea on a
“small scale”.
• Involves actual trial on the
farm where the farmer
collects the required inputs;
learns any new skills that
are required; commits some
land, labor, and money to
the trial; and sees what
happens.
Stages of the Adoption Process

5. ADOPTION (repeated use) or

REJECTION
• Farmer decides
whether to adopt or
reject the technology.

• The final stage of the adoption process maybe

characterized by large-scale and continuous use
of the idea.
The Innovation-Decision Model/Stages

Knowledge Stage
P ersuation Stage
D ecision-making
Stage
I mplementation
C onfirmation Stage
Stage
The Innovation-Decision Model

1. KNOWLEDGE STAGE
• The individual
develops some
understanding
about the new idea
and gathers
information from
various sources.
The Innovation-Decision Model

2. PERSUASION STAGE
• The individual forms an attitude towards the
innovation and persuades himself or is
persuaded by others.
• He actively seeks
information about the
innovation, interacts with
others, tries out the
innovation, and weighs
alternatives for making
decisions.
The Innovation-Decision Model
3. DECISION-MAKING STAGE
• The individual may
decide either to
adopt or reject the
new idea or to delay
the decision to allow
further verification.

• He actively seeks information about the

innovation, interacts with others, tries out the
innovation, and weighs alternatives for making
decisions.
The Innovation-Decision Model
4. IMPLEMENTATION STAGE
• Occurs when an individual puts an innovation
to use.
• Involves overt
(obvious) behavior
change, as the new idea
is actually put into
practice.

•Active information-
seeking usually takes
place.
 The Innovation-Decision Model
5. CONFIRMATION STAGE
• At this stage, the individual seeks
reinforcement for the decisions
• The individual further justifies the
decision he has made based on
his experience of adopters.

• The individual decides whether to

continue or to discontinue adopting
the innovation.
 STAGES IN THE ADOPTION PROCESS

1. AWARENESS- a stage when a person knows at an idea exists but lacks details and
information about it; somewhat like seeing something without attaching meaning to
something
2. INTEREST- a stage when a person seeks more factual information as to what it is, how it
works and what its advantages are, what is its potential
3. EVALUATION- when an individual shows marked interest in the idea as it applies to his
farming operation and family. Question of can I do it? How can I do it? Is this better than
what I was doing?
4. TRIAL- a stage whereby an individual has weighed the advantages and risks involved and
whether he can try it on a small scale to determine its utility in his own situation. Farmers
collect the required inouts, learn any new skills that are required, commit some land, labor
and money to the trial and sees what happens
5. ADOPTION (Use or reject)- If use, this stage is characterized by large scale, continued
use of the idea, and most of all, by satisfaction with the idea in preference to the old
method
CLASSIFICATION OF ADOPTERS

I nnovators
E arly Adopters
E arly Majority
L ate Majority
L ate Adopters/Laggards
Classification of Adopters
1. INNOVATORS (venturesome)
• First person in a
locally to adopt an
innovation.

• They go ahead, take

risks, and do the
experimenting for a
much larger group.
• Youngest age, highest social status, wealthy,
largest/specialized operations
Classification of Adopters
2. EARLY ADOPTERS (respectable)
• Quickly follow the lead set by the innovators
• Respected by his peers and is considered “the
man to check with”
• Always sought by
change agents to
hasten the diffusion
process.
• High socials
status, large and
specialized
operations.
Classification of Adopters
3. EARLY MAJORITY (deliberate)
• They watch the innovators and early adopters through
several time periods but not delay much longer before
adopting the innovation.
• They deliberate for some time
before completely adopting the new
idea, making them an important link in
the process of legitimizing innovations
because of their unique position
between the very early and the late
adopters.
• Above average social status,
average sized operations
Classification of Adopters
4. LATE MAJORITY (skeptical)
• The conservative type and more than normally
careful. They do not adopt a new practice until
most of their neighbors have already made the
change.
• Overwhelming pressure from
peers is needed before
adoption occurs.
• Below average social status,
small operation, small income.
Classification of Adopters

5. LAGGARDS (traditional)
• The last to adopt an innovation; are
suspicious of innovations, innovators, and
change agents.
• Oriented to the past.

• Lowest social status,

smallest operation,
lowest income, oldest.
 STRATEGIES TO EFFECT ADOPTION

1. Extension Worker Intervention

2. Progressive Farmer Strategy
3. Mass Marketing
4. Follower-Farmer-Strategy
5. Selective Farmer-to-Farmer
 STRATEGIES TO EFFECT ADOPTION
1. Extension Worker Intervention- extension workers are valuable
agents for quick diffusion and adoption of innovations. As
“carrier” of information, they must possess important traits such
as credibility, because of good understanding of farmers and
his problems, nature of technology, extension methods,
research results, etc.
2. Progressive Farmer Strategy- extension agents usually are in
direct contact with progressive farmers from which innovations
diffuse. Use of progressive farmers has its attraction to
extension workers especially if they are working under the
pressure of targets. (eg. Fertilizers to be distributed, areas to
be planted with new varieties, etc.)
 STRATEGIES TO EFFECT ADOPTION
3. Mass Marketing- uses of advertising to reach member of
the target market directly. Involves huge communication
systems to give information regarding product availability.
4. Follower-Farmer-contact farmers are identified from among
groups of families or households in one village. Extension
worker works with contact farmers.
5. Selective Farmer-to-Farmer- knowledge or information
acquired by a farmer is transferred to another farmer
through informal discussion in field and villages.
Conversation happens during leisure time and on social
and religious occasions. Relatives, friends and others listen
to and participate in the discussion
Explanation For Rejection/Adoption Of Technology

 INDIVIDUAL-BLAME HYPOTHESIS
• I am poor, I have low educational attainment, traditional,
fatalistic
 SYSTEM-BLAME HYPOTHESIS
• Leadership is traditional, power relationship is
exploitative, etc.
 PRO-INNOVATION BIAS
• The innovation is okay, it is the farmer’s fault
 Framework for Sustainable Development

1. Economically viable
2. Economically sound
3. Socially just and humane
4. Culturally acceptable/appropriate
5. Grounded in holistic science
6. Resilient and low risk
7. Biodiversity oriented
8. Productive
9. Participatory
 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

 Maintaining or prolonging the productive capacity

of the natural resources base to meet human needs.
 Is the conservation of the natural resources base
and the orientation of technological and institutional
change that ensures that attainment of a continued
satisfaction of human needs for present and future
generations
 Component of Agricultural Development

1. Governance
2. Research
3. Extension/education
4. Marketing
5. Production
6. Supply
 KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
 Evolution of the Concept
• Inspired by the American Land Grant Colleges
which brought agricultural research, education
and extension together in one institution
 Approaches to Knowledge System
1. Computer-based “Intelligent” Software- involved in capturing of
knowledge in formats that can be easily stored and retrieved. Depends
heavily on information system such as databases, experts systems,
corporate portals, digital directories, information technology solution,
and other ICT applications that facilitate bringing knowledge to point of
action during need.

2. Cognitive Approach- Sets of coherent cognition that have evolved

among members of organizations, communities or societies

3. Institutional Approach- sets of interconnected actors, each engaged in

different activities, such as research, technology transfer, production or
consumption, each playing different but complementary roles and
hence functioning synergistically
 Types of Knowledge Systems

1. Indigenous or Traditional Knowledge System- a

system of knowledge and beliefs developed and
held by original inhabitants of an area and their use
of it in daily life, knowledge that is unique to a given
culture or society.

2. Scientific Knowledge- a system of knowledge

covering general truths or the operation of general
laws especially those obtained and tested through
 AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM (AKS)
 Is a system of belief, cognition (thought), models, theories, concepts and other products
of mind.

Component of AKS
1. Technology Generation- consist of planning, administration and implementation of
research activities that develop, assess, adapt and test improved agricultural
technology for farmers and other users.

2. Technology Transfer- further evaluates and adapts research outputs for users and
then widely disseminates the knowledge and inputs too different target adopters

3. Technology Utilization- encompasses the users of the agricultural technology. Users

awareness, adaptation, and adoption of the technology

4. Agricultural policy- relates to the government development goals and strategies,

market and price policies and the levels of resources investment in the system
THE END.