INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

 GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITION

• India has a strategic position in Asia.

• The first Aryan settlers of India called the Indus river (now in
Pakistan) as ‘sindhu’ – a large sheet of water. From sindhu it
turned into ‘Hindu’, and through the Greeks it became ‘Indus’
from which India derived its name. With Muslim invasion the
country came to be known as ‘Hindustan’.
• The life giving rivers – Indus, ganga and Brahmaputra – that
gushed down from the inaccessible mountains developed into
fertile land in the indo-gangetic region which formed the cradle
of the Indus valley civilization, 4000 years ago though no one
had heard of such a civilization till the 1920’s.
•However the excavations carried out in the latter half of
twenties at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa now in Pakistan show
that Indus valley civilization or the Harappa civilization had its
beginning between 4000 and 3000 B.C.
• The civilization was highly developed as that of the
Mesopotamian civilization and the cities had highly advanced
system of town-planning.
• It is not known who were the early settlers. Mostly they were a
Mediterranean race.
• The civilization collapsed due to natural disasters and later on
it was completely occupied by the Aryan invasion in 1500 –
1000 B.C. And thereafter Vedic culture of Hindus succeeded.
GEOLOGICAL CONDITION

• Timber was available in plenty on Indus and Ganges valleys.

• White marble was available in Rajasthan which was used for
the Jain temples.
• Sand stone in Agra, Orissa and granite was available in Deccan.
• In western ghat the long horizontal strata in rising cliff,
produced rock cut sanctuaries of Ajanta, karli, ellora and
elephanta.
 CLIMATIC CONDITION
• More than half the country lies in tropic of cancer.
• The climate therefore varies widely.
• It is wet in winter and dry in summer.
• Buildings were built to suit the climate.
• In north, flat roofs were common but steep pitched roofs were used in west coast, Bengal and Assam
due to heavy rains.

 RELIGIOUS CONDITION

• Religion is deeply rooted in everyday life. There are mainly Hindu, Buddhist and jaina communities
in India.

HINDU
• The Hindu religion has evolved due to the brilliant synthesis of ideas and faith of the Aryans and
Dravidians.
• This ability to adopt or adjust alien ideas, faiths has made Hinduism a highly receptive and tolerant
religion.
• It is this receptivity that has helped the Hinduism to survive the onslaught of other religion through
centauries
The aryan principles are given in the four vedas :
 rig-veda – hymns in the praise of god to seek their blessing
 Sam-veda – chants
 Yajur-veda – prayers
 Atharv-veda – magic formulae
• From the dogmatic side Hindus believe in ‘karma’ and ‘rebirth’.
• On the moral side it is characterized by ‘dharma’- religion.
• For self-realisation there are ‘bhakti- marga’ the path of devotion.
• ‘Gyan-marga’ – path of knowledge and ‘karma – marga’ the path of action.
•Brahma , Vishnu and Mahesh are the great triad of Hindu worship.
• Brahma – the soul, the creator.
• Vishnu – the preserver.
• Mahesh – the destroyer.
• For all religious rites the Brahman priesthood was required who alone had the authority to perform.
• The Brahman priesthood was invested with unlimited authority and equipped with all the learning of
the age.
• This period was known as bhahmanical period and abuse of their powers invited the challenge of
Buddhists and jains.

 BUDDHIST
• Gautama Buddha- Siddhartha on attainment of enlightenment (samma sambuddha) went to Sarnath
and there in deer park preached the law for the first time.
• His religion teaches non violence, oneness, humanity, the deliverance from sorrow and ignorance.
• According to his doctrine nirvana can be attained by individual by a path of self purification with no
regard to caste, creed .
• Buddhism declined in India in the 7 th centaury but was carried over to srilanka, Burma, Kampuchea,
java and far east.

JAIN
• Jainism was founded by mahaveer or vardhaman who himself was a Brahman.
• After renouncing the world at 30, he spent 12 years in austerity and meditation under an Asoka tree
and achieved enlightenment.
• He was then known as jina – the conqueror.
• The religion teaches avoidance of injury to life, or non violence to observe truth, honesty, chasity,
abstinence from wordly desire, gentleness, piety, penance , and restraint of mind, tongue and body.
• There are two sects ‘swetambara’ and other ‘digambara’.

SOCIAL CONDITION

•There are four ‘varnas’ – brahman, kshatriya, vaisya and sudra.

• There is a divergence of language, social custom, tradition, and manners which have been reflected
in the architecture.
• Great epics of Ramayana, Mahabharata have very much influence in sculpture and paintings.

HISTORICAL CONDITION

•Nearly 5000 years ago, a group of people, mostly of Sumerian origin landed into N.W. Of India
through khyberpass and settled in the breath – taking green valley of indus. This marks the beginning
of the Indus valley civilization or Harappan civilization in India and is a contemporary of ancient
Mesopotamia.
• Excavations show that the civilization had spread to a great extent.
• The cities at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were built systematically, divided into 12 blocks, each
365m x 244m.
• Walls were laid in English bond in mud mortar. Care was taken to break the joints.
•The streets were 9m wide.
• The streets and buildings were marked by underground drainage lines with inspection chambers at
regular intervals.
• The citadel of Mohenjo-Daro contained many tall buildings.
• The great bath was 7m x 12m and 2,4m deep.
•Market halls, granaries, offices were neatly planned.
• The excavations revealed that there easily complete
absence of any form of decoration.
• Houses were strictly designed from point of view of
utility. Houses consisted of rooms around a courtyard
and contained a staircase to the upper storey.
• Almost every house built of biln-burnt bricks had a
bathroom, a latrine and often a well but had no street
windows and had no direct entrance opening to the main
streets.
•The script which was pictorial with 400 signs has not
yet been deciphered.
• Excavations revealed many square seals around 1200
cut out of soap stones engraved with signs accompanied
by animal figures. It seems that each family had its own
seals as stamps of ownership. •Their main food was rice, wheat, barley
•Their main food was rice, wheat, barley and fish.
and fish.
• It is not clearly known whether the inhabitants were
• It is not clearly known whether the
hunters.
inhabitants were hunters.
• They used ox-driven carts of large solid wheels for
• They used ox-driven carts of large solid
transportation.
wheels for transportation.
• Iron was not known but tools of stones and copper
• Iron was not known but tools of stones
were in use.
and copper were in use.
• They had extensive foreign trade both by land and sea.
• They had extensive foreign trade both by
land and sea.
•The Indus valley Harappa culture collapsed due to the
natural catastrophe as suggested by some archeologists.
• Earthquakes changed the river course and Indus valley
suddenly went dry as such the inhabitants abandoned the
site.
• But incase of mohenjo daro the end was very swift and
brutal.
•It was attacked by the nomadic invaders from north west
who swept over the city killing men women and children
in the streets and houses and then passed on leaving the
dead lying where they fell.
• This confirms the belief that Indus valley civilization
collapsed due to the attack by the Aryans in 1500 BC.
•The war like Aryan invaders captured the unarmed
people of the Indus valley.
• They further went eastward through the Himalayan
foothills and attacked the evergreen Gangetic plains and
captured the dasyus(meaning slave) in about 1500 BC.
• This made the beginning of the Aryan culture in India.
 ARYAN VILLAGE – VEDIC VILLAGE
• The aryan village was made of timber and thatched huts which were arranged in a group of three
or four around an open courtyard.
• It was finally protected by a timber fence consisting of rectangular wooden posts at regular
intervals and connected by 3 horizontal bamboo bars.
• At the entrance it was projected out where a gateway was provided which consisted of two
upright wooden posts with horizontal bamboo bars raised high enough for the cattle to pass.
• This type of gateway was later converted into the ornamental gateway co called toranas of the
buddhist style.
• All indian art is derived from the aryan village.
• There was no image worship as a part of vedic religious ritual and so no temples were seen to
have been constructed.
• Their vedic pantheon were the ‘devas’ means ‘shining ones’ such as the sky god, earth, the wind
god, varuna-creator, the god agni and above all indra the most powerful god of gods.
• The aryans were fire worshippers ans sacrifice was offered at the open altar by the priest kings
chanting hymns from the rig veda.
• This makes the beginning of what is popularly referred to as the vedic period (1500-1000 b.C.).
•When the Aryans came to India they encountered a highly civilized people - Dravidians – the
builders of the city civilization of the Indus valley.
• Though superior in war, the Aryans were far behind the Dravidians in culture.
• Just as the conquering Greeks ‘Hellenized’ the Aegean's legends of gods and goddesses the
Aryans also ‘aryanised’ the myths and the practices of the Dravidians and claimed them as their
own.
•As a result the cult of Indra declined and was
superceded by the deities of Hinduism – Brahma,
Vishnu and Shiva. Most of the Hindu temples are
dedicated to them.
• Later on there were many incursions from Persians,
Greco-Roman, Muslims. Portuguese, French and
English.
• Many kingdoms rose high and ultimately declined.
• Following are the important dynasties that ruled over
India from time to time. Finally it became a republic in
1947.
IMPORTANT DYNASTIES THAT RULED OVER INDIA
•EARLY MAURYAN DYNASTY (321-185 B.C.)

•This kingdom, Magadha, with its capital city at patliputra (near Patna) spread in north-
part of India.
• Emperor Chandragupta maurya was one of the powerful rulers of this dynasty.
• Chanakya was his chief minister who wrote the famous ‘arthashastra’
• Most of the constructions of this period were of wooden origin.
•The excavations carried out at patliputra showed evidences of advance knowledge of
town-planning.
• The capital city was laid on grid iron pattern containing 16 sectors.
•Most of the houses had gardens with wells and ponds.
•Waste water was carried by means of underground drainage and finally to the river
Ganges.
•The city was 16km long and 3.5 km wide surrounded by deep moat 180m wide.
•It was protected by ramparts stretching more than 40 km long studded with 64 gates and
570 towers.
• The four main gates were oriented to the cardinal points and were wide enough for
elephants to pass through easily.
• The gates were two storeyed high and contained guard rooms and custom offices.
• Patliputra in those days was a precious gem on India's crown.
ASHOKA – BEGINNING OF BUDDHIST PERIOD
•Emperor Asoka, grandson of Chandragupta maurya extended
the empire which he had inherited to include the whole of
India, Afghanistan and Burma.
• He strengthened the city patliputra and provided many civic
amenities like rest-houses, wells, hospitals for travelers.
• His conquest of kalinga (Orissa) was a turning point in his
life.
• The carnage that followed so upset Asoka that he was filled
with sorrow and turned to Buddhism.
•For propagating Buddhism, he built as many as 84,000
stupas and stone edicts written in pali language.
• It is to the great emperor Asoka, the greatest builder of all
times, that the credit for changing over from wood to rock as
material for religious buildings should go.
• Memorial pillars or lats were important features he erected
in this period. There were as many as 30 pillars erected.
• 2 are still in good condition, with lion over the bell capital.
• The master mason, the stone cutter has shown in every
detail, the handiwork of the carpenter in case of the famous
Asoka pillar.
 BUDDHIST ART
• Buddhist art includes media which depict Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other entities; notable
practitioners and historical figures; narrative scenes from the lives of all of these; mandalas
and other graphic aids to practice; as well as physical objects associated with Buddhist
practice (dorjes, bells, clothing, etc.).
• Music, chanting, dramatic forms, and poetry can also be considered Buddhist art.
• The earliest known instances of material objects of worship for Buddhists are relics of the
Buddha and other holy figures, as well objects symbolic of relics (e.g., stupas).
• An early text describes three categories of relics:
(1) Saririka: physical relics of the Buddha;
(2) Uddesika: religious symbols including the Buddha image, stupas, dharmacakra (wheel of
the law), “implying the places of actions and objects of use as relics of a Buddha”;
(3) Paribhogika: personal articles used by the Buddha.
• Relics are always closely associated with the life story of the historical Buddha and their
preservation/worship is intended to encourage religious practice.

 BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
•Mainly 2 branches – Hinayana &Mahayana
•Hinayana – Hina means poor, little etc… Yana means vehicle (a way of going to
enlightenment)
•Mahayana – literally means ‘ great vehicle’ . Originated in India. It is the largest major
tradition of buddhism.
•According to the teaching of mahayana traditions mahayana also refers to the path of
seeking complete enlightenment.
•Buddhist architecture: (300 B.C. – 820 A.D.)
•The major features of this style are stupas or topes, stambhas or lats, chaityas, viharas or
monasteries.
• Though primitive Buddhism rejected any form of idol worship, they represented Buddha
by means of symbols like stupa, bodhi tree indicating enlightenment, wheel of law, and his
foot prints.
• Other sculpture works include, jataka tales, serpents, yakshas.
• Sometimes, female figures were used on the bracket capitals and railing pillars.
• The yakshis or ‘salabhanjikas’ are charming heavenly females beautifully ornamented,
wearing scanty clothes, necklaces and standing in alluring poses under Asoka or sala trees.
This style spread in N. India, Ceylon, china, Japan, Germany etc.
STUPAS
•These stupas are circular built of earth ,
covered with stone or brick.
• The plan, elevation, section and the total
form were all derived from the circle – the
most powerful architectural form of
Buddhism.
• They were erected over the sacred relics of
the monks and worshipped with great
reverence. They are therefore also known as
relic shrines. At the top of the dome, was a small square
• Stupa more than the funeral mound was balcony in decorative form, called ‘harmika’
planned like a Vedic village. (heaven of 33 gods) enclosing a pedestal.
• The spherical dome symbolizes the infinite  As a sign of dignity a 3 – tired stone or
space of the sky , abode of sky. wooden umbrella (chhatravali) supported on
shaft (chhatrayasti) was raised over the
pedestal which was the Vedic altar of burnt
sacrifice and represented the village shrine.
 In the later period a more universal
Kind was used in which the harmika was
Expanded above, into an inverted stepped
Pyramid and covered by an umbrella
Forming the finial of the stupa. Eg. Karli.
The brickwork surface of the dome was
finished off with thick layer of lime mortar.
In some stupas, the dome was coloured and
some recesses were left at intervals for
receiving small lamps to be lit at the time of
festivals.
 The stupa was enclosed within a wooden
or stone railing called ‘vedica’ leaving an
ambulatory passage with gateways called
‘toranas’ at each end of the cardinal points.
 These ceremonial gateways originally
based on timber or bamboo gateways of Sometimes around the base of the dome, a
aryan village are great features of buddhist terrace of ‘medhi’ was added from the ground,
style. thus forming a separate and upper ambulatory
passage or ‘pradakshina path’ so that the
worshipping devotes could move in homage
round the stupa, and access to climb it was
provided by double staircase or ‘sopana’ with
high balustrade on the south side.
 The upper pradakshina path was perhaps
reserved for the monks, the traditional one at
the ground level was open to all common
devotees.
Pradakshina path
In some stupas to improve the architectural
appearance, a rectangular projection to the
base of the dome was provided at the four
cardinal points at the top of which a row of
five graceful pillars were constructed.
 These pillars so called ‘aryaka pillars’
standing just opposite the four gateways
marked the arms of cosmic system, like the
main streets of the Aryan village and
represented the five dhyana Buddha's and
also the five episodes in the life of Buddha.
 STUPAS AT SANCHI
•There are 3 main stupas on the top of the sanchi hill.
Of the 3 the biggest is known as the great stupa.
•It is about 40km from Bhopal in MP
•The dome ‘anda’ or ‘egg’ is a solid brick-work 32.32
in dia & 12.8 m high.
•The dome has slight ‘crushed’ profile at the top
•Was surmounted by Harmika with a central umbrella.
•Facing of the dome consist of dry masonry composed
of hammer dressed stones laid in even courses.

•Access to this passage was

given by a double staircase •The terrace (medhi) 4.87m
(sopana) with high high from the ground was added
balustrade on the south side. thus creating an upper
ambulatory passage 1.8m wide
•There are four gateways known as ‘Toranas’ at
the cardinal points
•Toranas consist of 2 square upright columns with
capital of lion or elephant heads denoting the
strength.
•These column support 3 separate horizontal
panels between each of the which is a row of
ornamental balustrades

•The panels have volutes at their terminal

ends surmounting with animal sculpture.
•The top panel is crowned with Tri-Ratna
symbol of Buddhist trinity, Buddha , the
law (Dharma) and monastic
community(Sangha) with wheel of justice
in the centre which rest on elephant
shaped pedestal.
•Total height of this erection is somewhat
10.36m with a width of 3m.
•The ambulatory or pradakshina path is fenced by
railing (vedica) 3.35m high all round the stupa.
•The vedica or railing consist of upright called
‘urdhava – patas’ octagonal in plan 45cm in dia
spaced at 60 to 90cm from each other and
connected by 3 lens shaped horizontals called
‘suchi’ or needles 60 cm deep being treaded
through the holes of the upright.

•The top horizontal bar is provided with coping

‘ushnisha’ to drain out rain water
•Outside the railing there stood once the
famous Asoka Pillar, the fragments of which
are noticed now the right side of southern
Torana
CHAITHYAS :

•Chaithyas or sacred spots are the temples as well as

Assembly halls created out of the particular demands of
Buddhist religion.
•Have a small rectangular doorway which opens to a
vaulted hall with apsidal end
•Hall is divided longitudinally by 2 colonnades forming a
broad nave in the centre and 2 side aisles.
•At the end is a stupaalso carved in natural rock with
enough space around it for circumambulation.
•The roof is usually semi-circular.
•Eg: rock cut chaithyas at bhaja, karli, ajantha and ellora.

CHAITHYA @ KARLI ( 78 BC)

•The entrance to this chaithya is very
grand & consists of 3 doorways set
underneath a gallery
•The chaithya hall is 38.5m long and 13m wide with a vaulted roof rising to a height of
13.7m.
•The roof is supplemented by a series of wooden ribs which are closely spaced.
•The hall is divided by two rows of column forming nave @ centre & two side aisles
•Each column is 1.22min dia & 7.32m high with bell- shaped capital
•The shaft is octagonal in shape and a vase shaped base.
•At the end is a stupa carved in natural rock
•With railing and inverted stepped pyramid at the top

13m
38.5m
AJANTHA CAVES…
•These caves are about 60 km from jalgaon.
•The caves are situated in a horse-shoe shaped
valley
•It spread over a length of more than 500m from
east to west
•There are some 30 caves out of which
9,10,19,26 and 29 are chaithya halls
•Others are viharas or monasteries.
•It is excaveted on the face of vertical cliff 79m
high.
•The cave walls are filled with figures of
celestial beings, dancers and deities of the
Buddhist pantheon.
•The chaithya cave No . 26, excavated out of
solid rock is the most representative of the group.
•It has a small rectangular door-way with a
horse-shoe-shaped window opening above, with
tracery work through which light is admitted into
the vaulted hall.
•The vaulted hall has an apsidal end and is divided longitudinally by two rows of columns
forming a board nave and two aisles.
•At end, a stupa is carved out of natural rock with the statue of buddha seated in front with his
feet down and surrounded by his attendants and heavenly flying figures.
•The vaulted roof is supplemented by closely spaced ribs cut from rock.
•At the entrance of the chaithya hall , there is also a standing image of Bodhisttava.
•The Ajantha caves are also famous for the Frescoes.
•The plaster used for the walls is about 1cm thick and comprises of hay, cow dung and rice
husk.
•The surface was made evenly smooth and the surface was then coated with lime, outlines were
drawn and finally color was applied to produce beautiful painting.
ELLORA CAVES

•Situated at about 34km from Aurangabad at the

foot of an off-shoot of the Sahayadri range.
•Nagarjuna, founder of the Mahayana School of
Buddhism is said to have had them excavated in
1st century.
•There are totally 12 Buddhist caves.
•There is only one chaityas and the remaining are
viharas.
•Similar to Ajantha cave – vaulted hall- apsidal
end- divided by 2 rows of columns – stupa at the
end with a cylindrical base supporting a huge
dome with a statue of Buddha seated in front.
•Columns are rectangular with shallow flutes and
wide capitals at the top.
•Carry heavy and deep entablature which is
elaborately sculputred.
•The vaulted roof id supplemented with ribs or
groins cut from the natural rock.
•There is also seventeen Hindu caves excavated
in 8th and 9th centuries, and five Jaina caves
excavated in 9th abd 11th centuaries
RANI GHUMPHA
•Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are partly natural and partly artificial caves of
archaeological, historical and religious importance near the city
of Bhubaneswar in Odisha, India. The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and
Khandagiri.
•They have a number of finely and ornately carved caves. It is believed that most of these
caves were carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks
•Udayagiri means "Sunrise Hill" and has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.
•Rani ka Naur (Queen's Palace cave, cave 1) is also an extensively carved cave and
elaborately embellished with sculptural friezes.
•Is a double storeyed monastery. Frontal face of lower floor has 7 entrance doors, while
upper floor - 9 columns. Cave contains exquisite carvings and sculpted friezes depicting
women dancing and playing musical instruments, also royal people in splendour, rampaging
elephants, monkeys. Famous due to its exceptional accoustic characteristics. It is possible
that the cave was used for chants and theatre performance, most likely - for Samaja
celebration. Cave contains also image of Surya riding a chariot.