NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Examination of materials and components in

such a way that allows material to be
examinated without changing or destroying
their usefulness
 NDT Methods
• Penetrant Inspection
• Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Eddy Current Inspection
• Ultrasonic Inspection
• Radiographic Inspection

• Magnetic Flux Leakage

• Acoustic Emission
Penetrant Inspection
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
A.K.A. Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI)
Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)
Penetrant testing (PT)

• Surface inspection method

• Applicable to all non-porous,
non-absorbing materials
 Penetrant Inspection
• Penetrating fluid applied to component and
drawn into defect by capillary action
• Penetrating fluid removed from component
surface (but not from defect)
 Penetrant Inspection
•Developer applied to surface

•Penetrant drawn back out of the defect

by reverse capillary action
 Principle : Capillary Action
• Interaction of adhesive forces(wetting side
of the sides of the tubes) and cohesive
forces(surface tension of the liquid)
1. PREPARATION AND PRE-CLEANING
2. PENETRANT APPLICATION

3. REMOVAL OF EXCESS PENETRANT

4. DEVELOPING
5. INSPECTION
6. POST TEST CLEANING
 What will happen if cleaning is not been
done properly ?

•The penetrant is not be able to wet the surface

of the test object

•The penetrant is unable to enter a discontinuity

due to a blockage
•The bleed out of the penetrant from a discontinuity
is restricted
 CLEANING METHODS

MECHANICAL METHODS CHEMICAL METHODS

E.G BRUSHING,BLASTING E.G HOT SOLVING DEGREASING,ACID
PICKLING
 System classification
• PENETRANT • REMOVAL • DEVELOPERS
• Colour • Solvent • Dry powder
contrast • Water • Aqueous
• Fluorescent washable • Non-Aqueous
• Dual • Post
emulsifiable
 TYPE OF PENETRANT

• COLOUR CONTRAST PENETRANT

• FLOURESENT PENETRANT

•DUAL PENETRANT
 APPLICATION OF
PENETRANT

• DIPPING AND DRAINING

• SPRAYING
• ELECTO-STATIC SPRAY
• BRUSHING
 Qualities of penetrant
• High surface tension
• Good wetting ability
• Specific gravity lower than 1
• Penetrant will not damaged the test piece
• Non-toxic
• High flash point
• Low volatility
• Visible in small quantities
• Post -cleaning should be easy
PENETRANT DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
REMOVAL

SOLVENT 1. CLEANED WITH A 1. PORTABILITY 1. EXPENSIVE

LINT FREE RAG
2. NO WATER SUPPLY REQUIRED 2. NOT SUITED TO BATCH
INSPECTIONS

3. HAZARDOUS

WATER 1. CONTAIN 1. USEABLE ON ROUGH 1. EASY TO OVER WASHING

WASHING EMULSIFIER SURFACES
2. LEAST SENSITIVE METHOD
2. WASH BY 2. SUITABLE FOR BATCH
COARSE WATER INSPECTION 3. REQUIRED WATER SOURCE

3. CHEAPER

POST 1. NEED TO APPLY 1. USED ON HIGH STRESS [Link] TIME IS

EMULSIFIEERS/ THE EMULSIFIER CRITICAL PARTS CRITICAL
LIPOPHILIC
2. WATER SUPPLY
ALSO REQUIRED

HYDROPHILLIC 1. ASLO KNOWN AS 1. MAIMUM PENETRATING ABILITY 1. NOT SUITED TO ROUGH

DETERGENTS SURFACE
REMOVER 2. GREATER CONTROL OVER
PENETRANT REMOVAL 2. MORE EXPENSIVE
2. WATER SUPPLY
ALSO REQUIRED 3. EMULSIFICATION TIME NOT SO 3. MORE TIME CONSUMING
CRITICAL

4. WIDE SHALLOW DEFECTS

 ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF
DEVELOPER
• ABSORBENT TO DRAW PENETRANT OUT OF DEFECT

• FINE GRAINED AND NOT LUMPY

• ABLE TO MASK THE BACK GROUND BUT NOT THICK

ENOUGH TO MASK A DEFECT

• LIGHT AND EASY APPLICABLE

• EASILY WET BY PENETRANT

• EASILY REMOVED FROM THE SPECIMEN

• INERT AND NON-TOXIC

DEVELOPER APPLICATION
DRY POWDER 1. LIGHT, FLUFFY, ABSORBENT POWDER

2. STICK BEST AT WET SURFACES

3. EASY TO REMOVE BUT DIFFICULT TO SEE IF PROPERLY APPLIED

4. FINE POWDERS CAN BE HAZARDOUS

SOLVENT 1. OFTEN BE CALLED NON-AQUEOS DEVELOPER

SUSPENDIBLE
2. IT IS A SUSPENSION OF INERT WHITE POWDER IN A VOLATILE SOLVENT

3. THE SOVENT EVAPORATES LEAVING A FINE WHITE BACKGROUND

4. MOST SENSITIVE

WATER 1. IT IS A WHITE POWDER AND THEN MIXED WITH WATER IN SUFFACTANT ADDED
SUSPENDIBLE
2. NOT OFTEN BE USED

3. THE POWDER WILL DRAWS THE PENETRANT OUT OF DEFECT WHEN THE WATER
EVAPORATES

4. USE AS IN CONCENTRATED IN COLOUR CONTRAST PENETRANT, THINNER FORM IN

FLOURESENT

WATER 1. SOLUTION OF SALTS IN FORMS OF FINE GRANULES WHICH DISSOLVED IN WATER

SOLUBLE
2. SUITABLY FOR FLUORESCENT PENETRANT
 Advantages of DPI
• VERY SENSITIVE
• CAN BE USED ON NON-FERROUS
METALS, SOME PLASTICS AND
GLASS
• SMALL OBJECTS WITH COMPLEX
GEOMETRY CAN BE INSPECTED
• NO NEED POWER SUPPLY
• NOT REQUIRED GREAT SKILLED
• CAN BE APPLIED IN BATCHES
 Disadvantages of DPI
• DEFECTS OPEN TO THE SURFACE ONLY CAN BE DETECTED

• SURFACE PREPARATION IS CRITICAL

• THE METHOD TAKES TIME

• MESSY

• INTERPRETATION SOMETIMES DIFFICULT

• DO NOT APPLIED TO PAINTED OBJECTS

• EFFLUENT PROBLEM WITH WASTE

Magnetic Particle Inspection
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
• Test method for the detection of surface
and sub-surface indications in
ferromagnetic materials
• Magnetic field induced in component
• Defects disrupt the magnetic flux
• Defects revealed by applying
ferromagnetic particles
 PRINCIPLE OF MPI
• MAGNETIZING THE SPECIMEN TO AN
ADEQUATE FLUX DENSITY

• APPLYING FINE FERROMAGNETIC PARTICLES

OVER THE SURFACE OF THE SPECIMEN

• BEING ABLE TO SEE CLUSTERS OF THE

MAGNETIC PARTICLES THAT GATHER AT FLUX
LEAKAGES AS AN INDICATION TO THE FLAW
 Principle of MPI(1) : Flux Leakage
No Defect Defect

N S N S

Lines of flux follow the path of least resistance

PRINCIPLE OF MPI(2):FLUX LEAKAGE

• The magnetic flux lines IDEALLY at the

right angle(90°) to a flaw to give the
best indication.
• The minimum orientation of the flaws to
the magnetic flux to be detected is 45
degree
 Magnetic Flux Leakage
• A saturation of flux is introduced

N S
 Magnetic Flux Leakage
• A saturation of flux is introduced
• Flux forced into air by reductions in thickness

N S
 Magnetic Flux Leakage
• A saturation of flux is introduced
• Flux forced into air by reductions in thickness
• Magnetic flux detected by sensors

Sensor

N S
 Magnetic Flux Leakage
Affected by
• Climatic conditions
• Cleanliness
• Surface condition
Limitations
• Coverage
• Qualitative not Quantitative
• Top side / Bottom side differentiation
• PRECLEANING
• MAGNETISATION
• APPLYING THE DETECTING MEDIA
• INSPECTION
• DEMAGNETISATION
• POST-TEST CLEANING
 PRE-CLEANING

•NOT BE SO THROUGHT AS FOR LIQUID

PENETRANT INSPECTION
•MPI SHOULD NOT BE CARRIED OUT
THROUGHT NON-MAGNETIC COATING
THICKER THAN 50 MICROMETERS
TYPE OF MAGNETIZATION CHARACTERESTICS DIRECTION
.
1 PERMANENT MAGNET 1. PORTABLE, NO NEED ELECTRISITY LONGITUDINAL
2. NEED A GOOD CONTACT

2. ELECTRO MAGNETIC 1. PORTABLE, EASY TO USE, CHEAP LONGITUDINAL

2. OPERATED BY AC OR DC
YOKE 3. AC DEMAGNETISATION

3. CURRENT FLOW PRODS 1. OPERATED BY AC CIRCULAR

2. CAN BE USED LARGE AND COMPLEX
SHAPE
3. PROBLEM WITH ARCING

[Link] COIL 1. WRAPPING A CABLE THROUGH THE LONGITUDINAL

COMPONENTS AND PASSING A N AC OR
DC CURRENT

5. FLEXIBLE CABLE 1. CABLE IS PLACED PARALLEL TO THE LONGITUDINAL

WELD, AC IS PASSED THROUGH THE
CABLE

6. CURRENT FLOW 1. TEST BENCH CIRCULAR

2. COMPONENT IS HELD BETWEEN TWO
CLAMPED
3. CURRENT IS PASSED THROUGH THE
COMPONENT

7. THREADING BAR 1. TEST BEACH CIRCULAR

2. NONMAGNETIC CONDUCTOR IS PASSED
THROUGH HOLLOW TUBES ON RING

8. MAGNETIC FLOW 1. SUITABLE FOR SHORT STUBBY LONGITUDINAL

COMPONENT
2. COMPONENT IS HELD BETWEEN TWO
CLAMPED
3. MAGNETIC IS PASSED THROUGH
CLAMPED
 DETECTING MEDIA
• CAN BE INKS OR POWDER
• MADE FROM HIGHLY PERMEABLE MATERIAL
• FERRIC OXIDE IS USED FOR
INKS,SUSPENDIBLE IN LIQUID,KEROSINE
BASED OR WATER
• POWDERS APPLICABLE TO SITE WORK SUCH
AS WELD OR [Link] BE USED ON HOT
COMPONENTS
 CONTROL CHECKS
BLACK LIGHT CASTROL STRIPS/
PIE GAUGE

U.V LIGHT METER

FIELD INDICATOR

KETOS RING
CENTRIFUGAL
TUBES
 CONTROL CHECK
DURATION REQUIREMENT
CHECK LIST
1.25-3.5% NON-FLOURESENT
DAILY
INK SETTELEMENT 0.1-0.3 % FLOURESENT

FLOURESENT INK INTENSITY DAILY COMPARISON BETWEEN NEW

AND OLD ONE

COMPARISON BETWEEN NEW

CARRIER LIQUID CHECKED DAILY AND OLD ONE

CURRENT FLOW FACILITY DAILY DEPENDING ONPROCEDURE

MAGNETIC FLOW FACILITY DAILY DEPENDING ONPROCEDURE

TANK LEVEL DAILY DEPENDING ONPROCEDURE

UV LIGHT INTENSITY WEEKLY 0.8 MILIWATTS/ SQUARE CM

500 LUX BLACK INK

AMBIENT LIGHT INTENSITY WEEKLY
10 LUX FLOURESENT

U.V LIGHT LAMP MONTHLY SAFETY AND CLEANLINESS

 Advantages of MPI
• Will detect some sub-surface defects
• Rapid and simple to understand
• Pre-cleaning not as critical as with DPI
• Will work through thin coatings
• Cheap rugged equipment
• Direct test method
 Disadvantages of MPI
• Ferromagnetic materials only
• Requirement to test in 2 directions
• Demagnetisation may be required
• Odd shaped parts difficult to test
• Not suited to batch testing
• Can damage the component under test
 Ultrasonic Inspection
Principle
• High frequency sound sound waves are
introduced into a material
• Interfaces between materials of differing
acoustic properties reflect or transmit
sound
• Reflected sound is displayed on a CRT
 Defect Orientation
0 degree Probes

Screen

Depth
Metal

Depth
 Defect Orientation
Angle Probes

Range

Range
Depth = Range x Cos (Probe angle)
 Defect Orientation

1 2 3
 Advantages
• Sensitive to cracks at various
orientations
• Portability
• Safety
• Able to penetrate thick sections
• Measures depth and through wall extent
 Disadvantages
• No permanent record (unless automated)
• Not easily applied to complex geometries
and rough surfaces.
• Unsuited to course grained materials
• Requires highly skilled and experienced
technicians
 Radiographic Inspection
• Electromagnetic radiation is imposed
upon a test object
• Radiation is transmitted to varying
degrees dependant upon the density of
the material through which it is travelling
• Variations in transmission detected by
photographic film or fluorescent screens
• Applicable to metals,non-metals and
composites
 Radiographic Inspection
Radiation Source

Lower Higher
density density

Specimen

Film
 Industrial
radiography Electric
Microwaves Waves
Ultra Infra red
violet TV

10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1cm 102 104 106 108

Wavelength
Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy

Shortening Wavelength
 X-Ray Production

TUNGSTEN

C TARGET
U
R
R -ve +ve
E
N
T
FOCUSING CUP X-RAY
 X-RAY PRODUCTION
• CATHODE • ANODE
1. INCLINED TUNGSTEN TARGET
1. PROCESS THAT MAKE THE EMBEDDED IN A LARGE LUMP OF
ELECTRON BOILS OUT FROM COPPER
THE HOT WIRE IS CALLED
THERMIONIC EMISSION 2. USED AS A TARGET FOR THE ELECTRON
TO HIT,AND THE IMPACT WILL
PRODUCE X-RAYS AND HEAT.
2. IT IS CONTROLLED BY THE
MILIAMP CONTROL THAT
3. VOLTAGE THAT SUPPLY TO THE ANODE
SUPPLY CURRENT TO THE IS CONTROLED BY THE kV CONTROL.
CATHODE
4. THE HIGHER THE VOLTAGE ACROSS THE
3. INCREASED THE CURRENT, WILL TUBE,THE HIGHER THE VELOCITY OF
INCREASED THE INTENSITY OF THE ELECTRONS AND THE GREATER
THE PENETRATING POWER
THE ELECTRON STREAM AND
HENCE THE RADIATION
 X-Ray Production
Amperage

Increase Decrease

Increase filament Decrease filament

temperature temperature

Increase number of Decrease number of

electrons electrons

Increase amount Decrease amount of

of radiation radiation
 X-Ray Production
Kilovoltage

Increase Decrease

Increase electron speed Decrease electron speed

Radiation wavelength Radiation wavelength

shortens increases

Increase penetration Decrease penetration

Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
- MEASURE OF ACCURANCY OF THE
RADIOGRAPHY

Contrast Definition
- COMPARISON - LINE OF DEMARCATION
BETWEEN FILM BETWEEN AREAS OF
DIFFERENT DENSITIES
DENSITIES
 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Density Film Energy Object Processing

contrast
 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Density Film Energy Object Processing

contrast

Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation

 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Film Screens Energy Vibration Geometry Processing

speed
 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Film Screens Energy Vibration Geometry Processing

speed

Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation

• CALCULATE USING PENETRAMETER
OR IMAGE QUALITY INDICATION (IQI)
 Advantages of Radiography
• Permanent record
• Internal flaws
• Can be used on most materials
• Direct image of flaws
• Real - time imaging
Disadvantages of Radiography
• Health hazard
• Sensitive to defect orientation
• Limited ability to detect fine cracks
• Access to both sides required
• Limited by material thickness
• Skilled interpretation required
• Relatively slow
• High capital outlay and running costs
 Radioactive isotope
• It is small,typically 1mm x 1.5 mm
cylinders,that give off gamma rays
• It occurs in nature and also in artificial
isotopes
• Artificial isotopes are created by
bombarding an element with an excess
of neutron in the nuclear reactor.
• Example of nature isotopes are radium
and uranium
• Example of artificial isotopes are iridium
192 and cobalt 60
 MEASUREMENT OF
RADIOACTIVITY
• THE BASIC UNIT IS CURIE
• IN SI UNIT, IT IS MEASURED IN
BECQUEREL
• 1 CURIE = 3.7 X 1010 BECQUERELS
• HALF LIFE OF AN ISOTOPE IS THE
TIME IT TAKES FOR 1/2 OF THE
ATOMS TO DECAY
 CALCULATE THE EXPOSURE TIME
FOR GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY

• BY USING THE FORMULA BELOW ;

T = EF X D2
I
T = EXPOSURE TIME,SEC
D = SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE,IN
I = INTENSITY OF THE SOURCE,CURIE
EF = EXPOSURE FACTOR, REFER TO THE EXPOSURE CHART
ISOTOPE CAMERA
OR PROJECTOR

OPERATION OF A
TYPICAL ISOTOPE
CAMERA
 SAFE DISTANCE
GIVEN BY THE FORMULA BELOW:

= CURIES X4.8X 1000 1/2

7.5
THIS GIVES DISTANCE IN METERS

• BARRIERS MUST BE ERECTED

BEYOND THE SAFE DISTANCE
 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
• IT HAS TWO TYPES BASICALLY:
SLOW FILM
- FINE GRAIN AND NEED MORE EXPOSURE
FAST FILM
- LARGE GRAINS AND NEED LESS EXPOSURE

• KNOWLEDGE OF FILM CAN HELPS THE RADIOGRAPHER

TO WORK OUT EXPOSURES WHEN CHANGING FILM
BRANDS. E.G IN TABLE 5.3

• FILM ALSO SHOULD BE STORED IN EDGES IN COOL DRY

CONDITIONS AWAY FROM CHEMICALS AND RADIATION
 Radiographic Techniques
• Single Wall Single Image(SWSI)
• Double Wall Single Image(DWSI)
• Double Wall Double Image(DWDI)
 Radiographic Techniques
• Single Wall Single Image(SWSI)

Panoramic
 Radiographic Techniques
• Single Wall Single Image(SWSI)
• Double Wall Single Image(DWSI)
 Radiographic Techniques
• Single Wall Single Image(SWSI)
• Double Wall Single Image(DWSI)
• Double Wall Double Image(DWDI)
OFFSET

OFFSET
 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

THREE LAYERS
•PROTECTIVE LAYER • SILVER BROMIDE WILL
EXPOSED AND TURN THE
LAYER OF GELATIN PROTECTS FILM INTO BLACK
THE EMULSION LAYER FROM
SCRACTHES •THE IMAGE IS LATENT
EXPOSED AND NO VISIBLE CHANGE
•EMULSION LAYER IN FILM WOULD BE
SUSPENDED IN IT THE SILVER NOTICEABLE UNTER
BROMIDE.. DEVELOPMENT
•TRANSPARENT POLYSESTER
BASE OF RADIOGRAPHY
 DEVELOPER STOP BATH
ALKALINE BASED . ACIDIC BASED
20°C
-SWEELS THE EMULSION ,THUS •REMOVES ALL UNEXPOSED SILVER
ALLOWING THE DEVELOPING AGENT TO GRAINS
INTERACT WITH EXPOSED GRAINS •HARDENS THE EMULSION GELATIN
-CHANGED THE EXPOSED SILVERS SALT TWICE CLEARING TIME
TO BLACK METALLIC SILVER
5 TO 8 MINUTES 20°C

-ACIDIC BASED
WARM,FILTERED, REDUCES SURFACES
TENSION. -STOPS THE DEVELOPING
CIRCULATING AIR
ELIMINATES MOST ACTION AND NEUTRALIZE THE
DRIES THE FILM
WATER AND SPOTS ALKALINE DEVELOPER
30 TO 45 MIN
0.5 TO 1 MIN 1TO 2 MINUTES 20°C

DRYING WETTING FIXING

Advantages of Gamma over X
rays
• No electrical or water supplies needed
• Equipment smaller and lighter-More portable
• Equipment simpler and more robust
• More easily accessed
• Less scatter
• Equipment initially less costly
• Greater penetrating power
Disadvantages of Gamma over X
rays
• Poorer quality radiographs
• Exposure times can be longer
• Sources need replacing
• Radiation cannot be switched off
• Poorer geometric unsharpness
• Remote handling necessary
Radiographic Image