PLANT K INGDOM 23

CHAPTER 3
PLANT K IN GDO M
3.1 Algae I n the previous chapter, we looked at the broad classifi cati on of living
organisms und er the system proposed by Whitt aker (1969) wherein he
3.2 Bryophytes
suggested the Five Kin gd o m classifi cati on viz. Monera, Proti sta, F u n g i ,
3.3 Pteridophytes Animalia a n d Plantae. I n this chapter, we will deal in detail with further
classifi cati on within Ki n gd o m Plantae popularly k n o wn a s the ‘plant
3.4 Gymnosp erms
kingdom’.
3.5 Angiosperms We mu st stress here that our understa nding of the plant k in gdo m
h a s changed over ti me. F u n g i , a n d members of the Monera a n d Proti sta
having cell walls have now been excluded from Plantae though
earlier classifi cati ons placed them i n the same kingdom. So, the
cyanobacteria that are also referred to a s blue green algae are not
‘algae’ a ny more. I n t h i s c h a pter, we will d e s c ri b e Alga e, B r yo p hy t e s ,
P teri d o p hy te s, Gymn o sp erms a n d Angiosperms under Plantae .
Let u s also look at classifi cati on within angiosperms to u nd ersta n d
some of the concerns that infl uenced the classifi cati on systems. The
earliest systems of classifi cati on used only gross superfi cial morphological
characters s u c h a s habit, colour, n umbe r a n d shape of leaves, etc.
They were based ma i n l y on vegetati ve cha ra cters or on the
a n droec i u m structure (system given by Linnaeus). S u c h systems were
arti fi cial; they separated the closely related species since they were
based on a few c haracteristi cs. Also, the arti fi cial systems gave equal
weightage to vegetative a nd sexual characteristi cs; this is not acceptable
since we know t h a t oft en the vegetati ve c h a ra c t e rs are more ea s i l y
aff ected b y environment. As against this, natural classifi cati on
sy st e m s developed, which were based on natural affi nities among the
organisms a nd consider,

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24 B I O LO GY

not only the external features, but also internal features, like ultra-
s t r u c t u r e , a n a t o m y, e m b r y o l o g y a n d p h y t o c h e m i s t r y. S u c h a
classifi cati on for fl owering plants wa s given by George B e nth a m a n d
J o s e p h Dalton Hooker.
At p re s e n t p h y l o g e n e ti c c l a s s i fi c a ti o n s y s t e m s b a s e d o n
evolutionary relati onships between the various organisms are acceptable.
T h i s a ss umes that organisms belonging to the same taxa have a
common ancestor. We now us e informati on from ma ny other sources
too to help resolve diffi culti es in classifi cati on. These become more
important when there is no supporti ng fossil evidence. N u m e r i c a l
Ta x o n o m y wh i c h is now easily carried out u s i n g computers i s based
on all observable characteristi cs. Number a nd codes are assigned to all
the characters an d the data are then processed. I n this way each
character is given equal impo rta nc e a n d at the s a me ti me h u n d re d s
of c h a ra c te rs c a n be considered. Cy to taxon o my that is based on
cytological informati on like chromosome number, structure, behaviour
a n d c h e m o t a xo n o my that uses the chemical consti tuents of the plant
to resolve confusions, are also u sed by taxonomists these days.

3.1 ALGAE
Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic a n d
largely a q u ati c (both fresh water a n d ma rine) o rga n i s ms . T h e y o c c u r
i n a variety of other h a bi tat s: mo ist ston es, so il s a n d wood. S o me of
t h em also o ccur i n associati on with fungi (lichen) a n d a n i ma l s (e.g., on
sloth bear).
The form a n d size of algae is highly variable, ranging from colonial
forms like Volvox a n d the fi lamentous forms like Ulothrix a n d Spirogyra
(Figure 3.1). A few of the marine forms s u c h a s kelps, form massive plant
bodies.
The algae reproduce by vegetative, a sexua l a n d sexual methods.
Vegetative reproducti on is by fragmentati on. E a c h fragment develops into
a thallus. Asexua l reproducti on is by the producti on of different types
of spores, the most common being the zo osp o re s . They are fl agellated
(motile) a n d on germinati on gives rise to new plants. Sexu al reproducti on
takes place t h rou g h fusion of two gametes. These gametes c a n be
flagellated and similar in size (as in Ulothrix) or non-flagellated (non-motile)
b u t s i mi l a r i n size (as i n Spi ro gyr a ). S u c h reproducti on i s called
i s o ga m o u s . F u s i o n of two gametes dissimilar i n size, a s in species of
E u d o r i n a i s termed a s a n i s o ga m o u s . F u s i o n between one large, non-
motile (static) female gamete a nd a smaller, motile male gamete is termed
o oga mo u s , e.g., Volvox, F u c u s .

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PLANT KINGDOM 25

F i g u r e 3 . 1 Algae : (a) Green algae (i) Volvox (ii) Ulothrix

(b) Brown algae (i) Laminaria (ii) F u c u s (iii) Dictyota
(c) Red algae (i) (ii) Polysiphonia
Po rphyra

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26 B I O LO GY

Algae are useful to m a n in a variety of ways. At least a half of the total

c a r b o n dioxide fi xati on on earth i s carri ed out by algae t h ro u g h
photosynthesis. Being photosyntheti c they increase the level of dissolved
ox yge n i n their i mme d i a te e nv i ro n me n t . T h e y are of p a r a m o u n t
importance a s primary producers of energy-rich compounds which form
the basis of the food cycles of all aquati c animals. Many species of Porphyra,
L a mi na ri a a n d S a r g a s s u m are among the 7 0 species of marine algae
used a s food. Certain marine brown a n d red algae produce large amounts
of hydrocolloids (water holding substances), e.g., al gin (brown algae) a nd
c a r ra ge e n (red algae) whic h are used commercially. Agar, one of the
commercial products obtained from Gelidium a n d Gracilaria are used to
grow microbes a n d in preparati ons of ice-creams a n d jellies. Chlorella a
unicellular alga rich in proteins is used a s food supplement even by space
travellers. The algae are divided into three ma i n classes: Ch lorop hyceae,
P h a eo p hycea e a n d R h o d op hyc e a e .

1. C h l o ro p hyc eae
The members of chlorophyceae are commonly called gre e n algae. The
plant body may be unicellular, colonial or fi lamentous. They are u s u a l l y
gra ss green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a a n d b. Th e
pigments are localised in definite chloroplasts. The chloroplasts may be
discoid, plate-like, reti culate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in
different species. Most of the members have one or more storage bodies
called pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain protein
besides starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil droplets.
Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made of a n inner layer of cellulose
a n d a n outer layer of pectose.
Vegetative reproducti on u s u a l l y takes place by fragmentati on or by
formati on of diff erent types of spores. As exu a l reproducti on i s by
flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia. The sexual
reproducti on shows considerable variati on in the type a n d formati on of
sex cells a n d it may be isogamous, an isogamous or oogamous. Some
commonly found green algae are: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix,
Spirogyra a n d C h a r a (Figure 3.1a).

2. Ph aeo phyceae
The members of phaeophyceae or brown algae are found primarily in
marine habitats. They show great variati on i n size a n d form. They range
from simple b ra nched, fi lamentous forms (Ectocarpus ) to profusely
branc hed forms a s represented by kelps, wh ich may reach a height of
10 0 metres. They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids a n d xanthophylls.
They vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending
u p on the a mo u nt of the xa nthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in

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 PLANT KINGDOM 27

them. Food is stored a s complex carbohydrates, wh ich may be i n the

form of lamina rin or mannitol. The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall
u s u a l l y covered on the outside by a gelati nous coati ng of a lgin. The
protoplast contains, in additi on to plasti ds, a centrally located vacuole
a n d nuc leus. The plant body is u s u a l l y att ached to the s ubstratu m by a
hold fast , a n d h a s a sta lk, the sti p e a n d leaf like photosyntheti c organ –
the frond. Vegetative reproducti on takes place by fragmentati on. Asexual
reproducti on i n most brown algae is by bifl agellate zoospores that are
pear-shaped a n d have two unequal laterally att ached fl agella.
Sexu a l reproducti on may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.
U n i o n of gametes may take place i n water or within the oogonium
(oogamous species). The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) a n d bear
two laterally attached flagella. The common forms are Ectocarpus,
Dictyota, Laminaria, S a r g a s s u m a n d F u c u s (Figure 3.1b).

3 . 1 . 3 R h o d o p hyc ea e
The members of rhodophyceae are commonly called red algae
because of the predominance of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their
body. Majority of the red algae are marine with greater concentrations
found in the warmer areas. They occur in both well-lighted regions close to
the surface of water and also at great depths in oceans where relatively
little light penetrates.
The red thalli of most of the red algae are multi cellular. Some of them
have complex body organisati on. The food is stored a s fl oridean sta rch
which is very similar to amylopecti n a n d glycogen i n structure.
The red algae u su a l l y reproduce vegetatively by fragmentati on. They
reproduce asexually by non-moti le spores a n d sexually by non-moti le

T A B L E 3 . 1 D i v i s i o n s of Algae a nd t h e i r M a i n
Classes Common
C h a ra c t e r i sMti aj
c sor Stored C e l l Wall Flagellar Habitat
Name Pigments Food Number
and
Po s i ti o n of
I n s e r ti o n s

C h l o ro p hyc e a e Green C h l o ro p hy l l Starch Ce l lu l o s e 2-8, equal, F r e s h water,

a lga e a, b apical b ra ck is h water,
salt water

P h a e o p hy c e a e Brown C h l o ro p hy l l M a n n i to l , Ce l lu l o s e 2, u n eq u a l, F r e s h water
a lga e a, c, laminarin a n d algin lateral (rare)
fucoxanthin b ra c k i s h
water, salt
water

Rh o d o p hyce a e Re d C h l o ro p hy l l Floridean Ce l lu l o s e , Absent F r e s h water

algae a, d, starch pecti n a n d (some),
p hyc o e r y t h r i n poly brackish
s u l p h at e water, salt
e sters water (most)

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28 B I O LO GY

gametes. S exua l reproducti on is oogamous a n d accompanied by complex

post fertilisation developments. The common members are: Polysiphonia,
Porphyra (Figure 3.1c), Gracilaria a n d Ge l idi u m.

3.2 B RYO P H Y T E S
Bryophytes include the various mosses a n d liverworts that are found
co mmo nl y growing i n moist s ha d ed a reas i n the h il ls (Figure 3.2).

Antheridiophore
Archegoniophore

Gemma cup Gemma cup

Rh izoids Rhizoid s
(a) (b)

Antheridial
C a ps u l e b ran ch B ra n c h e s

Sp o rophyte
Seta

Leaves

A rchegonial
b ran ch

Gametophyte

M ain ax is
Rhizoids

(d)
(c)

F i g u r e 3 . 2 Bryophytes: A liverwort – Marchanti a (a) Female th al lu s (b) Male th al lu s

Mosses – (c) Fu n a ri a , gametophyte an d sporophyte (d) S p h a g n u m
gametophyte

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 PLANT KINGDOM 29

Bryophytes are also called a mp h ib ia n s of the plant kin gd om because

these plants ca n live in soil but are dependent on water for sexu al
reproducti on. They us ua l ly occur in damp, h u m i d a n d shaded localities.
They play a n important role in plant succ ession on bare rocks/soil.
The plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated than that of algae.
It is thallus-like a n d prostrate or erect, a n d att ached to the su bstratu m
by unicellular or multi cellular rhizoids. They l a c k true roots, stem or
leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures. The
ma i n plant body of the bryophyte is haploid. It produces gametes, hence
is called a gametophyte . The sex organs in bryophytes are multi cellular.
The male sex organ is called a n t h e r i d i u m . They produce bifl agellate
antherozoids . The female sex organ called a rc h e go n i u m is fl ask-shaped
and produces a single egg. The antherozoids are released into water where
they come in contact with archegonium. A n antherozoid fuses with the
egg to produce the zygote. Zygotes do not undergo reducti on division
immediately. They produce a multi cellular body called a s p o ro p hy te .
The sporophyte is not free-living but att ached to the photosyntheti c
gametophyte a n d derives n o u r i s h m e n t from it. S o m e cells of the
sporophyte undergo reducti on division (meiosis) to produce haploid
spores. These spores germinate to produce gametophyte.
Bryophytes i n general are of little economic importance but some
mosses provide food for herbaceous ma mma l s, birds a n d other a nima ls.
Species of S p h a g n u m , a mo ss, provide peat that have long been u sed
a s fuel, and a s packing material for trans-shipment of living material
because of their capacity to hold water. Mosses along with lichens are
the fi rst organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of great ecological
importance. They decompose ro cks ma k i n g the substrate suitable for
the growth of higher plants. Sin ce mosses form dense mats on the soil,
they reduce the impact of falling rain a n d prevent soil erosion. The
bryophytes are divided into liverworts a nd m o s s e s .

3.2.1 L i ver wor t s

The liverworts grow u s u a l l y in moist, s h a d y habitats s u c h a s b a n k s
of streams, ma rs hy ground, d a mp soil, b a rk of trees a n d deep in the
woods. The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchanti a . The
th allus is dorsiventral a n d closely appressed to the substrate. The leafy
members have ti ny leaf-like appendages in two rows on the stem-like
structures.
Asexual reproducti on i n liverworts takes place by fragmentati on of
thalli, or by the formati on of specialised structures called ge m m a e
(sing. gemma). Gemma e are green, multi cellular, a sexua l b u d s ,
which
develop in sma ll receptacles called gemma c u p s located on the
thalli.
The gemmae become detached from the parent body a n d germinate
to form new individuals. D u r i n g sexual reproducti on, male a n d female
sex
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30 B I O LO GY

organ s are produced either on the sa me or on different thalli. Th e

sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta a n d capsule. After meiosis,
spores are produced within the capsule. These spores germinate to form
free-living gametophytes.

3.2.2 Mos ses

The predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte
which consists of two stages. The fi rst stage is the p roton e ma stage,
wh i c h develops directly from a spore. It is a creeping, green, branched
a n d frequently fi lamentous stage. The second stage is the leafy stage,
which develops from the secondary protonema a s a lateral b ud . They
consist of upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. They
are att ached to the soil through multi cellular a n d branched rhizoids.
Th i s stage bears the sex organs.
Vegetative reproducti on in mosses i s by fragmentati on a n d b udding
in the secondary protonema. I n sexu al reproducti on, the sex organs
antheridia a n d archegonia are produced at the apex of the leafy shoots.
After ferti lisati on, the zygote develops into a sporophyte, consisti ng of a
foot, seta a n d capsule. The sporophyte i n mosses is more elaborate than
that i n liverworts. The ca psule contains spores. Spores are formed after
meiosis. The mosses have a n elaborate mec h a ni sm of spore dispersal.
Co mmo n examples of mosses are Fu n a r i a , Polytrichum a n d S p h a g n u m
(Figure 3.2).

3.3 PTERIDOPHYTES
The Pteridophytes include horsetails a n d ferns. Pteridophytes are
used for medicinal purposes and a s soil-binders. They are also frequently
grown a s ornamentals. Evoluti onarily, they are the fi rst terrestrial
plants to possess vascular ti ssues – xylem a nd phloem. You shall study
more about these ti ssues in Chapter 6. The pteridophytes are found in
cool, damp, s h a d y places though some may fl ourish well i n sandy-soil
conditi ons.
Yo u m ay recall that i n bryophytes the do mi n ant ph a se i n the life
cycle is the gametophyti c plant body. However, i n pteridophytes, the
ma i n plant body is a sporophyte wh i c h is diff erenti ated into true
root, stem a n d leaves (Figure 3.3). These o rga n s p oss ess well-
diff erenti ated va s c u l a r ti ssu es . The leaves i n pteridophyta are s ma l l
(microphylls) a s i n Selaginella or large (macrophylls) a s i n ferns. The
sporophytes bear s p o r a n g i a t h a t a re s u b t e n d e d b y l e a f- l i ke
a p p e n d a g e s c a l l e d s p o r o p hy l l s . I n some cas es sporophylls m ay
form disti nct compa ct s t r u c t u r e s ca l led stro b il i or co n e s
(Se l a g i n e l l a , E q u i s e t u m ) . T h e sporangia produce spores by meiosis
i n spore mother cells. The spores germi n ate to give rise to
i n c o n s p i c u o u s , s m a l l b u t mu l ti c el l u l a r,

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PLANT KINGDOM 31

Strob ilu s

Node

Internode

Branch

Rhizome

(b)

(d)
(c)

F i g u r e 3 . 3 Pteridophytes : (a) Selaginella (b) Eq u i s e t u m (c) Fe r n (d) Salvinia

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32 B I O LO GY

f re e- l i vi n g , m o s t l y p h o to syn t h e ti c t h a l l o i d ga m e t o p hy te s c a l l e d
p r o t h a l l u s . These gametophytes require cool, d a mp , s h a d y places to
grow. Be c a u s e of th is specifi c restricted requirement a n d the need for
water for ferti lisati on, the spread of living pteridophytes i s limited a n d
restricted to narrow geographical regions. The gametophytes bear male
a n d female sex o rga n s called a ntheridia a n d archegonia, respecti vely.
Water is required for transfer of antherozoids – the male gametes released
from the antheridia, to the mouth of archegonium. F u s i o n of male gamete
with the egg present in the archegonium result in the formation of zygote.
Zygote thereafter produces a multi cellular well-differentiated sporophyte
wh i c h i s the d omin a nt ph a se of the pteridophytes. I n majority of the
pteridophytes all the spores are of si mil a r k i n d s ; s u c h pla nts are called
h o m o s p o r o u s . Gen era like Selaginella a n d Sa l v i n i a wh i c h produce
two k i n d s of spores, mac ro (large) a n d micro (small) spores, are k n o wn
a s heterosp orous . The megaspores an d microspores germinate a nd give
ri se to female a n d ma l e ga me to p hy tes , respec ti vely. T h e female
gametophytes i n these p la nt s are retained on the parent sporophytes
for variable periods. The development of the zygotes into young embryos
take place within the female gametophytes. T h i s event is a precursor to
the s e e d h a b i t considered a n important step i n evoluti on.
The pteridophytes are further classifi ed into four classes: Psilopsida
(Psilotum); Lycopsida (Selaginella, Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum)
a n d Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum).

3.4 GYMNOSPERMS
The gymnosperms (gymnos : naked, s pe rm a : seeds) are pla nts i n wh ich
the ovules are not enclosed by a ny ovary wall a n d remain exposed, both
before a n d after fertilisation. The seeds that develop post-ferti lisation, are
not covered, i.e., are naked. Gymno sp erms include medium-sized trees
or tall trees a n d s h r u b s (Figure 3.4). One of the gymnosperms, the giant
redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species. The roots are
generally tap roots. Roots i n some genera have fungal associati on in the
form of mycorr h iza (Pinus), while in some others (Cycas) small specialised
roots called coralloid roots are associated with N 2 - fi xing cyanobacteria.
The stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus). The leaves
may be simple or compound. I n C y c a s the pinnate leaves persist for a few
years. The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to withstand extremes
of temperature, humidity a n d wind. I n conifers, the needle-like leaves
reduce the surface area. Their thick cuti cle a n d s u n ke n stomata also
help to reduce water loss.

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 PLANT KINGDOM 33

The gymnosperms are heterosporous; they produce

haploid microspores and megaspores. The two kinds of
spores are produced within sporangia that are borne
on sporophylls which are arranged spirally along a n axis
to form lax or compact strobili or cones. The strobili
bearing microsporophylls and microsp o ran gia are
ca l l ed m i c ro s p o ra n g i a te or m a l e s t r o b i l i . T h e
m i c r o s p o re s develop into a m a l e ga me t o p hy ti c
generation which is highly reduced and is confined to
o n l y a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of c e l l s . T h i s r e d u c e d
gametophyte is called a pollen grain. The development
of pollen grains take place within the microsporangia. (a)
The cones bearing megasporophylls with ovules or
megasporangia are called macrosporangiate or female
strobili. The male or female cones or strobili may be
borne on the same tree (Pinus). However, in cycas
male cones and megasporophylls are borne on different
trees. The megaspore mother cell is differentiated from
one of the cells of the nucellus. The nucellus is
protected by envelopes a nd the composite structure
is called a n ovule. The ovules are borne on
megasporophylls which m a y be clustered to form
the female cones. T h e megaspore mother cell
divides meiotically to form four megaspores. One of the
megaspores enclosed within the megasporangiu m
develops into a multi cellular female gametophyte that
bears two or more archegon ia or female sex organs.
The multicellular female gametophyte is also retained (b)
within megasporangium.
U n l i ke br yo p hy tes a n d pteridop hy tes, i n
gymnosperms the male a n d the female gametophytes Dwarf Shoot
do not have a n independent free-living existence. They
rema i n within the s po ra n gi a retained on the
sporophytes. The pollen grain is released from the
Lo ng Shoot
microsporangium. They are carried in air currents and
come i n contact with the opening of the ovules borne
on megasporophylls. The pollen tube carrying the
male gametes grows towards archegonia in the ovules Seeds
a n d discharge their contents near the mo uth of the
archegonia. Following ferti lisati on, zygote develops (c)
into a n embryo and the ovules into seeds. These seeds
F i g u r e 3 . 4 G y m n o s p e r m s : (a) C y c a s
are not covered. (b) P i n u s (c) G in kg o

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34 B I O LO GY

3.5 ANGIOSPERMS

Unlike the gymnosperms where the ovules are naked, in the angiosperms
or fl owering p la nts, the pollen g ra i n s a n d ovules are developed i n
specialised stru c tu res called fl owers . I n angiosperms, the seeds are
enclosed i n fruits. The an gi osperms are a n excepti onally large group of
pl a nts o c c u rrin g i n wide range of h abitats. Th ey range i n size from the
smallest Wolffia to tall trees of Euca ly ptu s (over 10 0 metres). They provide
u s with food, fodder, fuel, medicines a n d several other commercially
important products. They are divided into two classes : the dicotyledons
a n d the m o n o c o t y l e d o n s (Figure 3.5).

(a) (b)
F i g u r e 3 . 5 Angiosperms : (a) A dicotyledon (b) A monocotyledon

SUMMARY

Plant kingdom includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms

a n d a n g i o s p e r m s . Algae are c h l o ro p hyl l - b ea r i n g s i mp l e , t h a l l o i d ,
autotrophic a n d largely aquati c organisms. Depending on the type of
pigment possesed a n d the type of stored food, algae are classfi ed into
three classes, namely Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae a n d Rhodophyceae.
Algae u s u a l l y reproduce vegetatively by fragmentati on, asexu ally by
formation of different types of spores a nd sexually by formation of gametes
whic h may show isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy.
Bryophytes are plants whic h ca n live i n soil but are dependent on
water for sexual reproducti on. Their plant body is more
differentiated tha n that of algae. It is thallus-like a n d prostrate or erect
a n d att ached to the su bst rat um by rhizoids. They possess root-like,
leaf-like a n d stem-

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like structures. The bryophytes are divided into liverworts a n d mosses.

The plant body of liverworts is thalloid a n d dorsiventral whereas mosses
have upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. The ma i n
p l a n t b o d y of a b r yo p hy te i s ga m e t e - p ro d u c i n g a n d i s ca l l e d a
gametophyte. It bears the male sex organs called antheridia a n d female
sex organs called archegonia. The male a n d female gametes produced
fuse to form zygote w h i c h p ro d u c e s a mu l ti c e l l u l a r body called a
sporophyte. It produces haploid spores. The spores germinate to form
gametophytes.
In pteridophytes the main plant is a sporophyte which is differentiated
into true root, stem a n d leaves. These organs possess well-
differentiated vascular ti ssues. The sporophytes bear sporangia which
produce spores. The spores germinate to form gametophytes which
require cool, d a mp places to grow. The gametophytes bear male a n d
female sex organs called antheridia a n d archegonia, respecti vely. Water
is required for transfer of male gametes to archegonium where zygote is
formed after ferti lisati on. The zygote produces a sporophyte.
The gymnosperms are the plants in which ovules are not enclosed by
any ovary wall. After ferti lisation the seeds remain exposed a n d therefore
these plants are called naked-seeded plants. The gymnosperms
produce microspores a n d megaspores which are produced in
microsporangia a nd m e g a s p o r a n g i a b o r n e o n t h e s p o r o p h y l l s .
T h e s p o r o p h y l l s – microsporophylls a n d megasporophylls – are
arranged spirally on axis to form male a nd female cones, respecti vely.
The pollen grain germinates a n d pollen tube releases the male gamete
into the ovule, where it fuses with the egg cell in archegonia. Following
fertilisation, the zygote develops into embryo a n d the ovules into seeds.
The angiosperms are divided into two c lasses – the dicotyledons a n d
the monocotyledons.

EXERCISES

1. What i s the b asis of classifi cati on of algae?

2. When a n d where does reducti on division take place i n the life cycle of a
liverwort, a mo ss, a fern, a gymnosperm a n d a n angiosperm?
3. Name three gro ups of p lants that bear archegonia. Briefl y describe the
life cycle of any one of them.
4. Menti on the ploidy of the following: protonemal cell of a moss; p ri mar y
endosperm nu cleu s in dicot, leaf cell of a moss; prothallus cell of a ferm;
gemma cell in Marchanti a; meristem cell of monocot, ovum of a liverwort,
a n d zygote of a fern.

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36 B I O LO GY

5. Write a note on economic importance of algae a n d gymnosperms.

6. Bot h gymno sper ms a n d an giosperms bear seeds, then why are they
classifi ed separately?
7. What is heterospory? Briefl y comment on its signifi cance. Give two
examples.
8. E x p l a in briefl y the following terms with suitable examples:-
(i) protonema
(ii) antheridium
(iii) archegonium
(iv) diplonti c
(v) sporophyll
(vi) isogamy
9. Differenti ate between the following:-
(i) red algae a n d brown algae
(ii) liverworts a n d mo ss
(iii) homosporous a n d heterosporous pteridophyte
10. Match the following (column I with col u mn II)

Column I Column II
(a) Ch l a my d o m o n a s (i) Moss
(b) C y c a s (ii) Pteridophyte
(c) Selaginella (iii) Algae
(d) S p h a g n u m (iv) Gymnosperm
11. Describe the important characteristi cs of gymnosperms.

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