Unit 1 The Nature

of Language
 Text A

The Complexity
of Language
David Crystal
Learning Objectives

Intercultural
Competence

Critical Thinking
•Communicative
CommunicativeCompetence

Reading Skills
Learning Objectives

• Reading Skills
• Scan for main ideas
• Identify topic sentences
• Identify supporting details

• Communicative Competence
• Illustrate your points with appropriate examples
• Use topic sentences and supporting sentences to
organize your essay
• Be aware of different styles in communication
 Learning Objectives

• Critical Thinking
• Make inferences and interpretations based on linguistic
facts
• Assess the credibility of statements
• Note and reflect on significant similarities and differences
between two languages

• Intercultural Competence
• Identify and articulate similarities and differences
between different languages and cultures
• Be aware of the links between cultural differences and
language differences
• Devalue discriminations against a language or culture
Lead in

In this unit we are going to take a close look at something that

we tend to take for granted—language. All of us are born with
a native language, and most of us are trying very hard to learn
a foreign language. But have you ever considered what
language really is? In what way does human language differ
from the other animals’ ways of communicating? Behind the
several thousand different languages in the world, are there
any universal features that hold them together? And if yes,
what are those features?
Lead in

The two texts in this unit won't be able to offer you all the
answers to the above questions, but they will set you thinking.
Text A illustrates what a marvelously complex system language
is, in terms of its sounds, words, sentences and discourse, and
in terms of its scale, creativity and structure as compared with
other ways of communicating, such as facial expressions or
gestures.
Text B takes stock of language from a different perspective:
It starts by examining the main functions that language serves
and moves on to examine how language can serve those
functions. Enjoy your reading!
Background Knowledge

1. About the Author

David Crystal, is a famous British linguist, academic and author.
Academic interests: English language studies, in such fields as:
• phonetics and phonology,
• stylistics,
• clinical linguistics,
• forensic linguistics,
• language death,
• “ludic linguistics”,
• Shakespeare,
• indexing,
• lexicography,
• applied linguistics.
Background Knowledge

Main publications:
Crystal has authored, co-authored, and edited over
120 books on a wide variety of subjects, but his major
contribution is in the field of language, including
several Penguin books, but he is perhaps best known
for his two encyclopedias for Cambridge University
Press, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language and
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.
 Background Knowledge

His other major books include:

Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English, The English Tone of Voice,
Introduction to Language Pathology, Profiling Linguistic Disability,
Clinical Linguistics, Linguistic Encounters with Language Handicap,
A Little Book of Language, Child language, Learning and Linguistics,
A Glossary of Netspeak and Textspeak, English as a Global Language,
How Language Works, Internet Linguistics,
Introduction to Language Pathology, Language Death
Background Knowledge

2. A Little Book of Language

This text is extracted from Crystal’s A Little Book of
Language published by University of New South Wales
Press Ltd. in 2010.
The whole book consists of 40 topics, ranging from the
acquisition and use of language to studies of language.

Scan three of the topics and briefly summarize the author’s

viewpoints.
Background Knowledge

Baby talk (Chapter 1):

One of the funny things we do with language is to talk to babies as if they

could understand us. For example, the mother usually talks continuously
to her baby in a high-pitched voice (e.g., “Hello”, or “Oh you are gorgeous,
you are gorgeous, you are, you are, you are.”) and often with rounded lips.
It seems stupid to talk in that way in ordinary life, but it is normal in baby-
talk.
Baby talk is one of the ways mothers and other care-takers develop
a strong bond with their babies, and it lays the foundation to a certain
extent for the development of language. By repeating the words and
sentences, and making them noticeable and melodious, mothers are
hopefully kick-starting the process of language learning of their babies.
Background Knowledge

Having a conversation (Chapter 7)

The ordinary, everyday use of language is to have conversations with each

other. Conversing seems like the most natural thing in the world, yet behind
it there are a large number of rules which we may not be
conscious of unless drawn attention to.
The most basic rule of having a successful conversation is that we take
turns. In the first few years of language acquisition, babies learn how to be
listeners as well as speakers in a conversation. When they grow up a little
bit, children have to learn how to carry on a conversation in a socially
acceptable way.
Another feature of conversation that children have to learn is, how to read
between the lines － that is, how to work out what people really
mean by the words they use.
Background Knowledge

Linguistics (Chapter 38)

Linguistics is more the science of language in general than the study of
different languages.
It aims to answer questions such as What do all languages have in
common? How do they vary? How do people speak, write and sign? How do
they learn their language? Why do they use language? In other words, the
aim of a linguist is not to be fluent in many different languages, but to
discover how
different languages work.
Many of the world's languages, indeed, haven't been studied at all. Even
the well-known languages need further study. English, for example, is ever
changing and our understanding of it needs updating all the time. Aspects
of linguistics include phonetics, grammar, semantics, sociolinguistics,
psycholinguistics, and historical linguistics, to name just a few.
 Background Knowledge

3. Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

It's a novel (1865) written by the English author Charles
Lutwidge Dodgson, under the pseudonym of Lewis Carroll.
It's about a series of adventures of Alice who falls down a
rabbit hole and into a magical dream world inhabited by
some surreal characters. It's also a journey of self-discovery
for Alice as she searches for a way out of the Wonderland.
Some main characters are: Alice, the White Rabbit, the
Mouse, Bill the Lizard, Puppy, the Duchess, the Cheshire
Cat, the March Hare, the Hatter, the Dormouse, the Queen
of Hearts, the King of Hearts, etc.
Background Knowledge

Content

CHAPTER I.Down the Rabbit-Hole

CHAPTER II. The Pool of Tears
CHAPTER III. A Caucus-Race and a Long Tale
CHAPTER IV. The Rabbit Sends in a Little Bill
CHAPTER V. Advice from a Caterpillar
CHAPTER VI. Pig and Pepper
CHAPTER VII. A Mad Tea-Party
CHAPTER VIII. The Queen's Croquet-Ground
CHAPTER IX. The Mock Turtle's Story
CHAPTER X. The Lobster Quadrille
CHAPTER XI. Who Stole the Tarts?
CHAPTER XII. Alice's Evidence
Background Knowledge

4. Sign Language
Sign language is a language which uses manual
communication and body language to convey meaning. It
develops within communities of deaf people and exhibits
the same linguistic properties as spoken language.
Modern Chinese Sign Language (CSL or ZGS) is the deaf
sign language of the People's Republic of China. The first
deaf school using Chinese Sign Language was created by
the wife of an American missionary, Nellie Thompson Mills,
in the year 1887. Schools, workshops and farms in different
areas for the deaf are the main ways that CSL has
been able to spread in China.
Background Knowledge

Like most other sign languages, Chinese Sign Language is

mostly conveyed through shapes and motions joined by facial
expressions. CSL has also at its disposal an alphabetic spelling
system similar to pinyin, with a system of blinks used to
communicate tones, usually expressed as a change in gaze or
a slight head turn.
The Chinese culture and language heavily influence signs in
CSL. For example, the sign for “eat” incorporates a pictorial
representation for chopsticks instead of using the hand as in
ASL.
Background Knowledge

American Sign Language (ASL) is a

complete, complex language that
employs signs made by moving the
hands combined with facial expressions
and postures of the body. It is the
primary language of many deaf North
Americans and is one of several
communication options used by people
who are hard-of-hearing.
Background Knowledge

5. Body Language
Body language is a form of human non-verbal
communication.
It consists of body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and
eye movements, etc.
There are many differences between Chinese and American
cultures of body language. In physical contact, for example,
the two cultures show different rules. Hugging (and possibly
kissing) is a means of showing intimacy in friends reunion
between American women, but it is considered awkward in
China, especially among the older generations.
Background Knowledge

Generally speaking, American people use more head

movements and shrugs than Chinese in their daily
conversation.
However, we must be aware that America is a multicultural
country and different nations (such as Indians, Hispanics, and
Asians) often exhibit distinctive habits and customs. So it is in
China.
 Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

1. Text Structure
Part Section Para(s). and main idea
I 1 Introduction 1 Introduction

2 The complexity of written language

2 The complexity of
language 3 The complexity of spoken language
II
3 The purpose of being
complex: producitivity 4 Why complex
5 Making new sentences
4 Originality of Language
6 Creating words with “un-”
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued
Part Section Para(s). and main idea

7 “Language”and other ways of

5 communication
III 8 The metaphorical use of the word
Language and body “language”
language 9 Three differences between language
and body language
10
Difference between language and
facial expressions: grammatical rules
 Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued
Part Section Para(s). and main idea

11 A transition: from facial expression

6 Body language: to gestures and touching
III gestures and
touching 12 Gestures and sign language

13 Touching and Helen Keller's

“language”
14 Some other uses of “language”
IV 7 Concluisons
15 Fundamental differences between
language proper and other forms of
language
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

The Thesis:

The complexity of language allows us to be original

and communicate in a way that no other means of
communication does.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part I Comprehension Check

What’s the function of the first sentence in paragraph 1?

It introduces the author’s basic idea to language, which

states that language is the most complex thing in the
world. It also corresponds to the title.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part I Word Study

reflect (Para. 1, line 1)
1) to think carefully and deeply about sth 认真思考，沉思
~ (on/upon sth)
e.g. Before I decide, I need time to reflect.
2) ~ sth to show or be a sign of the nature of sth or of sb's
attitude or feeling 显示，表明，表达（事物的自然属
性或人们的态度、情感等）
e.g. Our newspaper aims to reflect the views of the local
community. 本报的宗旨是表达当地人民的心声
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part II Comprehension Check

1. How many levels can language structure be divided in

written language according to Crystal? (para. 2)

There are letters which can be combined into words. Then

the words are combined into sentences, and there are
several thousand ways of doing that. There are thousands
more ways of combining the sentences into paragraphs,
paragraphs into chapters, and chapters into a whole book.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

2. Can you give some examples to show the complexities of

written language at the levels of alphabet, words,
sentences and discourse respectively? (para. 2)
Complexity in alphabet and word-formation:
unenthusiastically
intersubjectivity
antidisestablishmentarianism /,æntɪdɪsɪ,stæblɪʃm(ə)n'teərɪənɪz(ə
)m/ n. 反废除英国国教主义
Complexity in sentence:
Human beings have distinguished themselves from other
animals, and in doing so ensured their survival, by the ability to
observe and understand their environment and then either to
adapt to that environment or to control and adapt it to their
own needs.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

3. Why does the author say language is complex? Can you

explain it in terms of spoken language? (para. 3)

When we read or talk, we have to use the sounds of the

language—over 40 in the case of English. These are
combined into syllables, and there are several hundred
ways of doing that. Unlike writing, we don’t talk in
paragraphs and chapters. Rather, we talk in conversations
and speeches. And, to make these come alive we use
hundreds of different tones of voice—the intonation,
loudness, speed, and rhythm of our speech.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

4. Can you give some examples to show the complexities of

spoken language at the levels of sounds, words, sentences
and dialogues respectively? (para. 3)

Examples of the complexity of sounds:

Phoneme identification; liaisons （ /lɪˈeɪzns/ 联络员）
At each level of language, there are rules and exceptions.
For example, in English, the longest possible initial
consonant cluster is three consonants, as in split and
spring, and only a few consonants are allowed to be
combined in a particular order, but some loanwords are
exceptions.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

continued

Complexity of dialogue:
Ambiguity and disambiguation, euphemism, and how
people get the meaning between the lines
Complexity of using language:
Breaking rules for creativity; creating neologism (/ni
ˈɑːlədʒɪzəm/ 新词）
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

5. Following Crystal’s donkey example, can you make up a

few sentences that nobody has ever said before? What
does this tell us about language? (para. 4)

Chomsky’s example:
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
This tells us the originality and productivity of language.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

6. ‘Un-’ is a frequently used prefix that can be attached to a

large number of words to form new words. Can you think
of more prefixes and words containing those prefixes?
What does this tell us about language? (para 6)
• unable; unstable; unbelievable; uncandid( 不坦率的 ),
unlikely; unexceptional; unexcelled ( 未胜过的，极好
的 ); unexcited; unexcused
• Most prefixes change the meaning of their stems (e.g.
un-; in- pre-; anti-; etc.), while many suffixes change the
part of speech (-ment; -able; -fy; -al; etc.). But there are
also exceptions (e.g. en-; -er).
• Language is creative/original.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part II Word Study

1. along with (para 2, line 9)

in addition to sb/sth; in the same way as sb/sth 除…以外
（还）；与…同样地
e.g. She lost her job when the factory closed, along with
hundreds of others.
工厂倒闭时，她和其他几百人一样失去了工作。
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

2. cope with (para 2, second line from bottom)

[v.] to deal successfully with sth difficult （成功地）对
付，处理
SYN manage
e.g. I got to the stage where I wasn’t coping any more.
~ with sth
e.g. He wasn’t able to cope with the stresses and strains
of the job.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

3. way (para 2, second line from bottom)

[C] a method, style or manner of doing sth 方法；手段；途径；
方式
‘in the way’ in the context 以…方式
COMPARE
1) in a way/ in one way/ in some ways
to some extent; not completely 在某种程度上；不完全地
e.g. In a way it was one of our biggest mistakes.
从某种意义上来说，这是我们所犯的最大错误之一。
2) in the way of sth
used in questions and negative sentences to talk about the types
of sth that are available （用于问句或否定句）关于，就…而言
e.g. There isn’t much in the way of entertainment in this place.
这个地方没有多少娱乐活动。
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

4. case (Para 3, line 2)

[C] a particular situation or a situation of a particular type
具体情况；事例；实例
‘in the case of’ in the context 至于，在…的情况下，
COMPARE
1) in case of sth
(often on official notices 常用于正式通知 ) if sth
happens 如果；假使
e.g. In case of fire, ring the alarm bell.
2) (just) in case (…)
because of the possibility of sth happening 以防；以防
万一
e.g. You’d better take the keys in case I’m out.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

continued

3) in that case
if that happens or has happened; if that is the situation
既然那样；假使那样的话
e.g. ‘I’ve made up my mind.’ ‘In that case, there’s no
point discussing it.
4) in any case
whatever happens or may have happened 无论如何；
不管怎样
e.g. There’s no point complaining now—we’re leaving
tomorrow in any case.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

5. tone (para 3, line 8)

1) [n. ] OF VOICE 腔调
[C] the quality of sb’s voice, especially expressing a particular
emotion 语气；口气；腔调；口吻
e.g. Don’t speak to me in that tone of voice (= in that
unpleasant way).
2) PHONETICS 语音学
• [C] the pitch (= how high or low a sound is) of a syllable in
speaking （说话的）声调，音调
e.g. a rising/falling tone 升调；降调
• a particular pitch pattern on a syllable in languages such as
Chinese, that can be used to distinguish different meanings
（字的）声调；字调
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

6. bet (para 4, line 6)

1) [v.] (informal) used to say that you are almost certain that
sth is true or that sth will happen 敢说；八成儿
~ (that)…
I bet (that) we’re too late.
2) [v.] to risk money on a race or an event by trying to predict
the result 下赌注（于）；用…打赌
~ on/against (sb/sth doing) sth
e.g. I wouldn’t bet on them winning the next election.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

7. make up (para 4, line 7)

make sth↔up
1) to form sth 形成；构成
SYN constitute
Women make up 56% of the student numbers.
2) to put sth together from several different things 拼装；组
成
   related noun make-up (3)
3) to invent a story, etc., especially in order to trick or
entertain sb 编造（故事、谎言等）
e.g. He made up some excuse about his daughter being sick.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

8. enable (para 4, line 8) [v.]

1) ~ sb to do sth to make it possible for sb to do sth 使能够；
使有机会
SYN allow
e.g. The software enables you to create your own DVDs.
2) to make it possible for sth to happen or exist by creating
the necessary conditions 使成为可能；使可行；使实现
SYN allow
~ sth to do sth
e.g. Insulin enables the body to use and store sugar.
胰岛素使人体能够利用和贮存糖分
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

9. brand new (para 5, line 3)

[adj.] completely new 全新的；崭新的
e.g. a brand new computer
She bought her car brand new.
10. hit (para 5, line 7)
1) [n.] an occasion on which a web page is displayed or a file is
downloaded from the Internet （网页的）点击；（文件的）
下载
e.g. Our website is getting a lot of hits from the USA.
2) [n.] a person or thing that is very popular 很受欢迎的人（或
事物）
e.g. The duo were a real hit in last year’s show.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

11. search engine (para 5, line 7)

a computer program that searches the Internet for
information, especially by looking for documents
containing a particular word or group of words （计算
机）搜索引擎

12. get across (para 6, line 3)

get across (to sb), get sth ↔ across (to sb)
to be communicated or understood; to succeed in
communicating sth 被传达；被理解；把…讲清楚
e.g. He’s not very good at getting his ideas across.
他不太善于清楚地表达自己的思想
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

13. admit (para 6, third line from bottom) [v.]

1) ~ (to sb) (that…) to agree, often unwillingly, that sth is true
（常指勉强）承认
SYN confess
~ to sth, ~ to doing sth, ~ sth
e.g. She admits to being strict with her children.
2) to say that you have done sth wrong or illegal 承认（过错、
罪行）；招认；招供
3) admit of sth (formal) to show that sth is possible or probable
as a solution, an explanation, etc. 容许，有…可能（指解决
办法、解释等）
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part II Sentence Analysis

1. And, along with all this, as we go from one publication to another

we have to cope with a huge number of variations in the way
language looks on the page—different sizes of type, different
typefaces, and so on. (para 2)

与此同时，当我们从一本出版物转到另一本出版物时，我们
必须应对语言在该页面上所呈现出的多种变化——字体大小
的不同，字体样式的不同等等。
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

2. And about 400 years ago, Shakespeare wrote Macbeth, in

which he has a character called Malcolm tell several lies
about himself. (Para 6)

Shakespeare:

William Shakespeare (c. April 23, 1564 – April 23, 1616) an

English poet, playwright and actor of the Renaissance era.
He was an important member of the King’s Men company
of theatrical players from roughly 1594 onward.

Source: https://www.biography.com/writer/william-shakespeare
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part III Comprehension Check

1. According to Crystal, what are the main differences

between ‘body language’ and language proper?

Body language and language proper are different

in scale/ number of words (hence expressiveness),
creativity, and structure.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

2. What is the function of Para. 11?

It's a transition paragraph which turns our attention

from facial expressions to sign language and Hellen
Keller's touching language. This makes the author's
argumentation more comprehensive and more
persuasive.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

3. In what way are sign language and Hellen Keller's

“language” different from other kinds of body language
and similar to language proper?
Sign language has specific rules governing its use and
individual signs can be combined together to express new
meanings. In this sense, sign language has a kind of “two
level” structure of language proper and therefore is more
productive and creative than other forms of
body language and is more similar to language proper.
Hellen Keller's “language” is dependent on feeling the
movements of the vocal organs of the other people, and
thus is rule-governed and totally different from the casual
touching in everyday life.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part III Word Study

1. set apart (Para 7, line 2):
to make someone or sth. different and special 区别 , 使与众不同
set apart from
e.g. Graf's natural athleticism set her apart from other tennis
players.
2. sense (Para 8, line 2):
[N] the meaning of a word or phrase 含义 ; 意义
in a sense: a way of thinking about or understanding sth.
在一定意义上，从某种意义上
e.g. My family's from this area, so in a sense it's like coming
home.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

3. beware (Para 8, line 3):

[V] usually in imperative, used to warn someone of danger
or difficulty 当心，注意
e.g. Beware, buying a house is full of problems.
Beware of
e.g. Beware of the dog.
Beware of doing sth
e.g. You should beware of using too many colors together.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

4. make the point (Para 11, line 1):

to prove that you are right about sth. 证明 ( 观点 )
e.g. You've made the (your) point, there's no need to keep
discussing.
make a point of doing sth.: to be certain that you do sth.
打定主意做某事
e.g. From then on, he made a point of avoiding her.
5. vocal organs (Para 13, line 4):
Also called speech organs. 发声 / 音器官
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part III Sentence Analysis

1. This ability to take familiar bits of language and to combine

them to make new words and sentences is what sets language
apart from other ways that human beings use to communicate.
(Para 7)
Translate the sentence into Chinese.

正是这种把语言中熟悉的成分组合起来制造新单词和新句
子的能力把语言和其他人类交际方式区别开来。
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

2. We have to beware the word “language”. It's often used in a

vivid way to mean any kind of connection between people.
(Para 8)
Paraphrase the sentence.

We have to be cautious about the use of “language”

because it is often used figuratively, referring to any means
of communication (body language) or even the basis of
mutual understanding (speaking the same language).
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

3. Language is creative in a way that body communication

isn’t. (Para 9)
Paraphrase the sentence.

In a sense, language enables us to create sentences/

utterances that have never been used before, while body
communication can not.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part IV Comprehension Check

1. What is the fundamental difference between all the art

forms and language proper as observed by Crystal at the
end of the text?

Language allows us to talk about our experience of the

world in a way that no other means of communication
can. (Para 15)
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

2. How do you understand the statement “Language allows

us to talk about our experience of the world in a way that
no other means of communication can”.

Human language has many distinctive features that other

means of communication do not have. It's these design
features that make it possible for humans to create
sentences/utterances that have never been said before,
to talk about sth. in remote places and to discuss sth.
happened in the past, at present or in the future.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part IV Word Study

1. in relation to (Para 14, line 6):
(1) concerning sth. 关于
e.g. I have nothing further to say in relation to this
matter.
(2) in comparison to sth. 与 ... 相比较
e.g. Unemployment here is high in relation to national
levels. 这里的失业率与国家整体水平相比是高的。
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

2. deserve (Para 15, line 7):

[V] if sb/sth deserves sth, its right that they should have it,
because of the way they have behaved or because of what
they are 值得，应得
e.g. You deserve a break after all that hard work.
Their suggestions deserve a special mention.
deserve to do
e.g. They didn't deserve to win.
I think I deserve to be well paid.
deserved: a deserved reputation
deserving: be deserving of sth
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

Part IV Sentence Analysis

1. If I have the ability, I can paint them, draw them, sculpt them,
dance them, compose them into a symphony or a ballet or a
piece of jazz, and express myself in all the ways that are called
“arts and crafts.” (Para 14)
Paraphrase the sentence.

“Arts and crafts” are also means of communication. If I

have the ability, I can express my thoughts and feelings in
painting, drawing, sculpture, dance and music.
Detailed Analysis Part I Part II Part III Part IV

2. Language allows us to talk about our experience of the

world in a way that no other means of communication can.
Translate the sentence into Chinese.

语言使我们能够以一种其他交际手段所不能比拟的方式谈
论我们对世界的体验。
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Evaluation and Exploration

1. Evaluating the Text (Interpreting linguistic facts)
The statements given below all express some linguistic facts. Answer the
question following each statement and see what kind of inferences you can
make about language and the use of language. Reading the first two
paragraphs of Text B might help you with some of the questions.
Example:
Once we've learned a few thousand words, and learned the ways
our language allows us to put them together into sentences, we
can say things that nobody has ever said before.
Question: What distinctive feature of language is behind this
observation?
Answer: Language has got productivity and provides us with
unlimited possibilities of being original.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

a. Sound-sequences such as “up”, “shoe”, and “spots” are

possible ways of talking in English, but “ngop”, “shmfi”, and
“doprns” aren't.
Question: What does this tell us about phonetic rules in
general and English phonetic rules in particular?
Answer:
For any language, there are certain phonetic rules that determine
which sounds are allowed or disallowed in each part of the syllable.
English allows very complicated syllables; syllables may begin with
up to three consonants (as in string or splash), and occasionally end
with as many as four (as in prompts). Initial consonant clusters in
English always begin with a /s/, followed by one of the voiceless
stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) and a liquid or glide (/l/, /r/, /w/). In fact there
are only five initial consonant clusters in English: /spl-/, /spr-/,
/str-/, /skr-/, /skw-/). (George Yule, The Study of Language, 4th ed.,
2010)
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

b. While people are talking, they're also looking at each

other, and we can see that the expressions on their faces
add a great deal to what they're saying.
Question: What does this tell us about the visual aspect
(a kind of paralinguistic feature) of linguistic
communication?
Answer:
Communication is not completed merely in the exchanges
of words, especially in face-to-face talk. Communication is
prototypically multi-modal. Paralinguistic features add to
or even convert the literal meaning of what people say.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

c. You might not know a preposition from an adverb, or the

difference between the passive voice and the indicative,
nor what the double object construction is, but as a native
speaker of English, you can use them with your hands tied
behind your back.
Question: What does this tell us about people's knowledge
of grammar?
Answer:

A native speaker's knowledge of grammar is implicit rather

than explicit.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

d. A sobering fact about language is that unlike other forms

of cultural behavior, it is blind to demographics,
socioeconomics and ethnic difference.
Question: What distinctive feature of language is behind
this observation?
Answer:

As a tool of communication, language, by its nature, has

nothing to do with values or discriminations associated
with culture, society or ethnicity.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

2. Exploring beyond the Text

The following topics will take you beyond the text. Form groups of four or
five and discuss these topics in some detail.

(1) English, as an alphabetic language, is composed of 26

letters. Chinese, as a character-based language, is
composed of thousands of different characters.
Please compare the composition of an English word and
that of a Chinese character and comment on the
advantages and disadvantages of the two writing systems
in terms of language learning.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Morphologically, English words are usually formed in three

ways, compounding, derivation and conversion.
Compounding is a process in which two independent words
are put together to make one word, e.g. firework from fire and
work.
Derivation is the process of forming a new word on the basis
of an existing word, e.g. happiness and unhappy from
happy,and determination from determine. Derivation often
involves the addition of a morpheme in the form of an affix,
such as -ness, un- and -ation.
Conversion is a change in the function of a word without
changing its form.
 Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

(2) In English there are 20 vowels and 28 consonants. Can you find
out how many vowels and consonants there are in Chinese?
Compare the possible structures of an English syllable and that of
a Chinese syllable and work out their similarities and differences.

The general structure of both Chinese and English syllables

consists of three segments: the Onset (consonant, optional in
both English and Chinese), Nucleus (sonorant, obligatory in
both) and Coda (consonant, optional in both).
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued

A Chinese syllable, with only a limited number of coda, is

often divided into two parts: an initial and a final. An initial is
shengmu, and a final yunmu. A syllable can be an initial + a
final or a final without an initial. An initial is always a
consonant. The Chinese alphabet has 21 shengmu and 38
yunmu.

An English syllable can be stressed or unstressed while a

Chinese syllable carries a tone.
 Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

(3) In English you can create new words by adding a prefix or a

suffix or both to a word. Can we create new Chinese words in
this way? If yes, how? And if not, does this mean that Chinese
has lost a part of its productivity?

Neologism, i.e. introduction of new words, is not only possible

but also necessary in all languages. Chinese is no exception.
Chinese new words are created in a number of ways, among
which the most popular ones are borrowing (transliteration)
and compounding. Chinese compound words can take many
different forms, including modifier-head, verb-complement,
verb-object, subject-predicate, and number-measure, etc.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

(4) Finally, what do you think are the distinctive features of

language, i.e., features that differentiate language from
other ways of communication? Can you give a definition
of language?

American linguist Charles Hockett specified 13 design features

of language in The Origin of Speech (1960):
a. Vocal-Auditory Channel: Much of human language is
performed using the vocal tract and auditory channel. Hockett
viewed this as an advantage for human primates because it
made it possible for them to participate in other activities while
simultaneously communicating through spoken language.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued
b. Broadcast transmission and directional reception: Human
language can be heard if it is within range of another person's
auditory channel. Additionally, a listener has the ability to
determine the source of a sound by binaural direction finding.
c. Rapid fading (transitoriness): Wave forms of human
language dissipate over time and do not persist. A hearer can
only receive specific auditory information at the time that it is
spoken.
d. Interchangeability: A person has the ability to both speak
and hear the same signal. Anything that a person is able to
hear, he/she has the ability to reproduce through spoken
language.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued

e. Total feedback: A speaker has the ability to hear himself/

herself speak. Through this, speakers are able to monitor their
speech production and internalize what they are producing
through language.
f. Specialization: Human language sounds are specialized for
communication. When dogs pant, it is to cool themselves off,
when humans speak, it is to transmit information.
g. Semanticity: This refers to the idea that a specific signal is
matched with a specific meaning.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued
h. Arbitrariness: There is no limitation to what can be
communicated about and there is no specific or necessary
connection between the sounds used and the message being
sent.
i. Discreteness: Phonemes can be placed in distinct categories
which differentiate them from one another, such as the
distinct sound of /p/ versus /b/ in English.
j. Displacement: The ability to refer to and communicate about
things in space and time removed from here and now.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued
k. Productivity: The ability to create new and unique
meanings of utterances from existing utterances and sounds.
l. Traditional Transmission: The idea that human language is
not completely innate and acquisition depends in part on the
learning of a language.
m. Duality of patterning: Phonic segments (phonemes) are
combined to make words, which in turn are combined to
make sentences.
Source: Hockett, Charles F. (1960). The Origin of Speech,
Scientific American, 203: 88-96.
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued
Definitions of language:
a. The method of human communication, either spoken or
written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and
conventional way.
(Oxford Dictionary Online, http://www.oxforddictionaries.com)

b. Language is not to be confused with human speech, of

which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential
one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and
a collection of necessary conventions that have been
adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise
that faculty.
(F. de Saussure: Course in General Linguistics,1916)
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued

c. Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method

of communicating ideas, emotion and desires by means of
voluntarily produced symbols.
(E. Sapir. Language: An Introduction to Study of Speech,
1921. New York: Harhcount, Brance ＆ Company.)

d. A set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in

length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.
(N. Chomsky: Syntactic Structures,1957)
Text Analysis Text Structure Detailed Analysis Evaluation and exploration

Continued

e. The institution whereby humans communicate and interact

with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory
arbitrary symbols.
(R. A. Hall. Introductory Linguistics,1964)

f. The systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs, or written

symbols in a human society for communication and self-
expression.
(D. Crystal. Introducing Linguistics, 1992)
Language Enhancement Words and phrases Sentences and discourse

Language
Enhancement
I. Words and phrases
1. Word formation
(1) untie a horse from a tree (7) social unrest
(8) an unappreciated gesture of good will
(2) uncover mistakes (9) internal unease
(3) unearth a plot (10) unaccountable absence
(11) unaccustomed to public speaking
(4) unbalance the budget (12) unworthy of consideration
(5) unblock a road
Nouns: unrest, unease, unbelief
(6) unbelief in Christianity
untie, uncover, unearth, unbalance, unblock
Verbs:
Adjectives: unaccountable, unappreciated, unaccustomed, unworthy
Words and phrases Word formation Antonym Prepositions Sentences and discourse

2. Antonym
Antonym Prefix
connection disconnection dis
construct deconstruct de-
equality inequality in-
encourage discourage dis-
ever never ne-/n-
fortunate unfortunate un-
logical illogical il-
mature immature im-
Words and phrases Word formation Antonym Prepositions Sentences and discourse

(continued)

Antonym Prefix
monolingual bi-/multi-
bilingual/multilingual
normal abnormal ab-
include
exclude ex-
relevant
symmetric irrelevant ir-
understanding asymmetric 不对称的 a-
verbal misunderstanding mis-
nonverbal non-
Words and phrases Word formation Antonym Prepositions Sentences and discourse

3. Prepositions
Complete the following sentences.
(1) Language is creative in a waythat body communication isn’t. (in
a way/in the way)
(2) They should be displayed in a waythat enables them to be
appreciated by all the children in the class. (in a way/in the way)
(3) These small, common words (“so”, “like”, “how”) have undergone
massive changes in the waythey are used in the last decades. (in
a way/in the way)
(4) And, along with all this, as we go from one publication to another,
we have to cope with a huge number of variations
in the way
language looks on the page. (in a way/in the way)
Words and phrases Word formation Antonym Prepositions Sentences and discourse

(5) If we read out loud, we have to use the sounds of the language —
over 40 in the case (in
English. of the case of/in case of)

(6) Some pious Las Vegas, it seems, put aside their deep feelings
against gambling for the long-term goals of providing for family,
furthering a career, or, some religious leaders,
retaining worshippers. (ininthe
thecase
caseof/in
of case of)

(7) Now, on the issue of the strategic petroleum, the government

keeps quite a bit of oil on the side an emergency. (in
the case of/in case of) in case of
Words and phrases Word formation Antonym Prepositions Sentences and discourse

(8) They are still dependent on (on/from) imports for more than
90% of their oil needs. It is impossible for their country to be
completely independent from (on/from) other countries.
(9) The court has promised to look into (after/up/into) this case
about money laundering.
(10) Then, as with writing, we combine these words into sentences.
(for/to/with)
Language Enhancement Words and phrases Sentences and discourse

II. Sentences and Discourse

1. Telling the difference

(1a) We have to be careful with the word “language.”
(1b) We have to beware the word “language.”
(1b) is more formal than (1a), because the verbs are less
frequently used;

(2a) He says he will take back what he said.

(2b) He says he will unspeak what he said.
(2b) is more formal than (2a), because the verbs are less
frequently used;
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(3a) Analogy can be found at all levels of a language.

(3b) Analogy can operate at all levels of a language.
(3b) is more formal than (3a), because the verbs are less
frequently used;

(4a) Given that learned behavior can and often does change,
what are the forces that cause change?
(4b) Given that learned behavior can and often does change,
what are the forces that trigger change?
(4b) is more formal than (4a), because the verbs are less
frequently used;
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(5a) We can talk about our experience of the world with language
in a way that no other means of communication can.
(5b) Language allows us to talk about our experience of the world
in a way that no other means of communication can.
5b) starts with an inanimate subject “language”, which is
personified in “allows us to talk about our experience”.

(6a) She was not well centered in her talk.

(6b) She wandered in her talk.
6b) involves a metaphor, comparing a “not well-centered talk” to
“purposeless talk (wandering)”. In both (5b) and (6b), there is a
rhetorical device that adds to the vividness of the expressions.
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

2. Paraphrasing

Paraphrase the following sentences. You may need to refer to

the context in which they are used.
(1) This ability to take familiar bits of language and to combine
them to make new words and sentences is what sets language
apart from other ways that human beings use to communicate.
(Text A, Para. 7)
Because of the existence of morphological and syntactic
rules, language enables to create new words and sentences
making use of available materials. This is not possible with
other ways that we use to communicate, such as the use of
facial expressions or bodily gestures.
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(2) We have to beware the word “language.” It’s often used in a

vivid way to mean any kind of connection between people.
(Text A, Para. 8)
We have to be cautious about the use of “language”
because it is often used figuratively, referring to any means
of communication (body language) or even the basis of
mutual understanding (speaking the same language).
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(3) We learn many rules of grammar in order to express

different meanings, such as changing the order of words in
a sentence. But we don’t have rules which change the
order of our facial expressions to express different
meanings.
Facial expressions are different from real language in that
there are no grammatical rules such as word order to help
us express different meanings when we communicate with
facial expressions.
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(4) If I have the ability, I can paint them, draw them, sculpt
them, dance them, compose them into a symphony or a
ballet or a piece of jazz, and express myself in all the ways
that are called “arts and crafts.” (Text A, Para. 14)

“Arts and crafts” are also means of communication. If I

have the ability, I can express my thoughts and feelings in
painting, drawing, sculpture, dance and music.
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(5) In our everyday lives we produce and comprehend

language with such apparent ease that we take it for
granted. Yet the ease with which we use language
belies a level of complexity of immense proportions.
(Text B, Para. 1)
Our everyday use of our native language, whether to
express ourselves or to understand others, is so easy that
we have never realized the great complexity behind this
simple fact.
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

3. Translation

Translate the following sentences. Use the expressions in

brackets to help you if you like.

(1) Once we’ve learned a few thousand words, and learned

the ways our language allows us to put them together into
sentences, we can say things that nobody has ever said
before. (Text A, Para. 4)
一旦我们掌握了数千个单词和语言所允许的将这些单
词组合成句的方法，我们就可以说出别人从未说过的
话。
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(2) When people use their faces or hands to show their

feelings, they’re doing something that is very different from
what they do when they speak, write, or use a deaf sign
language. (Text A, Para. 9)
当人们用脸或手来表达情感的时候，他们所做的是一件与
说话、书写或者使用聋人手语很不一样的事情。

(3) Language allows us to talk about our experience of the

world in a way that no other means of communication can.
(Text A, Para. 15)
语言使我们能够以一种其他交际手段所不能比拟的方式谈
论我们对世界的体验。
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(4) 她穿着鲜红色的大衣，这使她在姑娘们中间显得特别
突出。 (apart from)
Her bright red coat set her apart from the other girls.

(5) 我们的触觉能力也可以演绎出一套语言。
(develop into)
Our ability to touch can also be developed into a language.
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(6) 他以蛮横无理的方式对他的助手们发号施令。 (in a way)

He orders his assistants around in a way that is very offensive.

(7) 与书面语不同的是，我们在口语中并不是按照段落或章
节来组织思想的。 (frame)
Unlike writing, our thoughts are not framed in paragraphs
or chapters in speech.
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

4. Rhetorical devices
In the text, Crystal employs several rhetorical devices (i.e., a use of language
that creates a special literary effect) which add to the beauty of his language.
Study the following sentences carefully and identify the rhetorical device in
them. Then write down three sentences of your own with the rhetorical
device identified.
(1) But it can give us an idea about what’s common and what’s rare in a
language. (Text A, Para. 5)
Parallelism. Parallelism: similarity of structure in a pair or series
of related words, phrases, or clauses
(2) If I have the ability, I can paint them, draw them, sculpt them, dance
them, compose them into a symphony or a ballet or a piece of jazz,
and express myself in all the ways that are called “arts and crafts.”
(Text A, Para. 14)
Parallelism.
Sentences and discourse Telling the difference Paraphrasing Translation Rhetorical devices

(3) That’s why it is so special. That’s why it deserves a study of its own. And
that’s why it is studied by the subject called linguistics. (Text A, Para. 15)
Parallelism.
(4) I came, I saw, I conquered.
Parallelism.
(5) What you see is what you get.
Parallelism: similarity of structure in a pair or series of related
words, phrases, or clauses.
Rhyme: a repetition of similar sounds, usually the final vowel or
consonant, in the end of two or more words.
Your own sentences:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Rhetorical device(s) used:
Intercultural Reflection
Intercultural Reflection

The following research topics are designed to help you find out more about
the nature of language. Choose one from them, have a group discussion
based on prior independent research, and then prepare a five-minute
presentation or write an essay of 200-300 words.
1. Word order is important in both English and Chinese, for a change in
the word order of a sentence may bring changes to the meaning
conveyed. Do you think that Chinese and English follow the same word
order in their sentences? Support your arguments with examples.
The answer is yes and no. At the level of basic sentence structure,
Chinese word order very closely matches that of English, both being
SVO (subject + verb + object). Yet please keep in mind that “SVO”
doesn‘t include little details like articles (a, the) or prepositions (to,
for, etc.).In addition, the placement of attributives and adverbials is
not exactly the same in the two languages. The attributive clause 定
语从句 in English, for example, is not allowed in Chinese.
Intercultural Reflection

2. Language is forever changing. You can feel the changes that are
taking place in a language most vividly in the way it is used on
the Internet. Carry out a small survey to find out the differences
between Internet Chinese and everyday Chinese.
Points:
1) The creation of new words and expressions is very popular on
the internet. There appears a list of top network buzzwords
流行词 every year.
2) The use of Internet jargon 行话 (cyber-lingo) is no longer
confined to the cyberspace. It has gone from the virtual world
to the real world. The most glaring example is that the young
generation has begun to use Internet jargon in their daily
communication.
3) On formal occasions, people are still reluctant to use the net
language.
Intercultural Reflection

3. Learn more about American Sign Language and Chinese Sign

Language. In what way do you think they resemble and differ
from English and Chinese respectively?
Points:
1) The basis of any language is to communicate with one another
(mostly of the same inclination).
2) Sign languages of the world are more similar to each other than
written/spoken languages.
3) The goals for establishing sign languages are universal: to enhance
the quality of life of the hearing disadvantaged by (1) eliminating
the obstruction between the deaf and the hearing people,
assisting the government in promulgating the Law for the
Protection of the Handicapped, (2) reviewing and promoting the
education of sign language and assisting the deaf in removing their
obstacles to communicate with people, and (3) improving the deaf
schooling, employment, medical care and support and seeking for
a living space free of obstruction.
Intercultural Reflection

continued

4) In addition to their pictorial similarity, both CSL and ASL resort

to the use of constraints and helpful gestures in similar
manner. For example, CSL, just like ASL, assumes verb
agreement.
5) Even though both Chinese and American sign languages have
established formal connections to written Chinese and English
by defining a set of symbols for the pinyin in Chinese and the
alphabet in English , most of the signs needed for daily
communication in both CSL and ASL are by pictures and by
actions, coupled by facial expressions.
Intercultural Reflection

continued

6) An interesting thing about the ASL is the infrequent use of the

alphabet. Although ASL users are taught how to sign words by
using the alphabet, they rarely spell out words. Most of the
words are signed by actions and facial expressions that can be
related to our daily encounters, e.g., driving a car or a truck,
asking about who, why, where and when.
7) It is the same with the CSL community. Because Chinese is
already a pictorial language, the connection between written
Chinese and CSL is even tighter than that between written
English and ASL.
Intercultural Reflection

continued
8) It is suggested that it may be easier for a Chinese to pick up
CSL than for an American to learn ASL. This could be because a
Chinese is already equipped with a language based on pictorial
characters. Consequently, the translation to the equally
pictorial CSL is easier than what an American has to deal with:
translating the alphabetized words into pictures and relating
those to ASL.
For more details, please refer to:
Chinese Sign Language by Elizabeth T. Yeh:
http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/topics/chinesesignlanguage.htm

Useful resources:
http://www.chinashouyu.cn/
http://www.start-american-sign-language.com/
Yau, S. C.(1977). The Chinese signs: Lexicon of the standard sign language for
the deaf in China. HongKong: Chiu Ming Pub. Co.
 Suggested Readings and Websites
1. David Crystal. A Little Book of Language.New Haven: Yale University
Press, 2010.
2. Toshitaka N. Suzuki, et al. “Experimental evidence for compositional
syntax in bird calls.” Nature Communications, (7) 2016.
(https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms10986/)
3. 《自然传奇》 : 动物智慧之语言
(http://tv.cctv.com/2012/12/11/VIDE1355233141163485.shtml)
Note:
Word explanations and sentence examples are mainly from Oxford Advanced
Learners English-Chinese Dictionary, The New Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary,
Collins Cobuild English-Chinese Dictionary, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary,
Youdao Online Dictionary, and WordNet.