STATISTICS, SCIENCE, AND

OBSERVATIONS

Chapter 1: PSY 102

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What are the use of statistics in
Psychology?

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 Data and Statistics
Data (datum-singular) consists of information coming from
observations, counts, measurements, or responses.

Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing,

analyzing, and interpreting data in order to make
decisions.
A population is the collection of all outcomes, responses,
measurement, or counts that are of interest.

A sample is a subset of a population.

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1.A. POPULATIONS AND
SAMPLES

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 Population or Target Population A population consists of
all elements—individuals, items, or objects—whose
characteristics are being studied. The population that is being
studied is also called the target population.
 Sample A portion of the population selected for study is
referred to as a sample.

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 PARAMETERS AND STATISTICS
 A parameter is a value, usually a numerical value, that
describes a population. A parameter is usually derived from
measurements of the individuals in the population.
 A statistic is a value, usually a numerical value, that
describes a sample. A statistic is usually derived from
measurements of the individuals in the sample.

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 Branches of Statistics
The study of statistics has two major branches:
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
Statistics

Descriptive Inferential
statistics statistics
Involves the Involves using a
organization, sample to draw
summarization, conclusions about
and display of data. a population.
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1. Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics consists of
methods for organizing, displaying, and describing data by
using tables, graphs, and summary measures.

2. Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics consists of

methods that use sample results to help make decisions or
predictions about a population

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 Sampling error is the naturally occurring discrepancy, or
error, that exists between a sample statistic and the
corresponding population parameter.

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 Exercises
1. A researcher is interested in the texting habits of high school students in the United States.
If the researcher measures the number of text messages that each individual sends each
day and calculates the average number for the entire group of high school students, the
average number would be an example of a ___________.

2. A researcher is interested in how watching a reality television show featuring fashion

models influences the eating behavior of 13-year-old girls.
1. A group of 30 13-year-old girls is selected to participate in a research study. The group
of 30 13-year-old girls is an example of a ___________.
2. In the same study, the amount of food eaten in one day is measured for each girl and
the researcher computes the average score for the 30 13-year-old girls. The average
score is an example of a __________.

3. Statistical techniques are classified into two general categories. What are the two
categories called, and what is the general purpose for the techniques in each category?

4. Briefly define the concept of sampling error.

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1.B. BASIC TERMS

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 Basic Terms
 Element or Member An element or member of a sample or
population is a specific subject or object (for example, a
person, firm, item, state, or country) about which the
information is collected. (Note that elements are also called
observational units.)
 Variable A variable is a characteristic under study that
assumes different values for different elements. In contrast to
a variable, the value of a constant is fixed.

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 Basic Terms
 Observation or Measurement The value of a variable for
an element is called an observation or measurement.
 Data Set A data set is a collection of observations on one or
more variables.

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Basic Terms

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 Exercise
Refer to the data set:

a. What is the variable for this data set?

 b. How many observations are in this data set?
 c. How many elements does this data set contain?

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 1.C. DATA STRUCTURES,
RESEARCH METHODS, AND
STATISTICS

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 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
VARIABLES:
DATA STRUCTURE

I. Measuring Two Variables for Each Individual: The

Correlational Method

II. Comparing Two (or More) Groups of Scores: Experimental

and Non-experimental Methods

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 I. Measuring Two Variables for Each Individual: The
Correlational Method
 In the correlational method, two different variables are
observed to determine whether there is a relationship
between them.

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 II.A. Comparing Two (or More) Groups of Scores:
Experimental
In the experimental method, one variable is manipulated while another variable is
observed and measured. To establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the
two variables, an experiment attempts to control all other variables to prevent them
from influencing the results.

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2 general categories of variables that researchers must consider:

1. Participant Variables: These are characteristics such as age, gender, and

intelligence that vary from one individual to another. Whenever an experiment
compares different groups of participants (one group in treatment A and a
different group in treatment B), researchers must ensure that participant
variables do not differ from one group to another.

2. Environmental Variables: These are characteristics of the environment such as

lighting, time of day, and weather conditions.

2 Types of Variable

3. The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

In behavioral research, the independent variable usually consists of the two (or
more) treatment conditions to which subjects are exposed. The independent
variable consists of the antecedent conditions that were manipulated prior to
observing the dependent variable.

4. The dependent variable is the variable that is observed to assess the effect of
the treatment.

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2 Types of Condition

1. Individuals in a control condition do not receive the experimental treatment.

Instead, they either receive no treatment or they receive a neutral, placebo
treatment. The purpose of a control condition is to provide a baseline for
comparison with the experimental condition.

2. Individuals in the experimental condition do receive the experimental

treatment.

2 characteristics that differentiate experiments :

3. Manipulation: The researcher manipulates one variable by changing its value

from one level to another. A second variable is observed (measured) to deter-
mine whether the manipulation causes changes to occur.

4. Control: The researcher must exercise control over the research situation to
ensure that other, extraneous variables do not influence the relationship being
examined

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 II.B Comparing Two (or More) Groups of
Scores: Non-experimental Methods
 In a nonexperimental study, the “independent variable” that
is used to create the different groups of scores is often called
the quasi-independent variable.

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1.D. Data Classification

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 Types of Data
Data sets can consist of two types of data: qualitative
data and quantitative data.
Data

Qualitative Quantitative
Data Data
Consists of Consists of
attributes, labels, numerical
or nonnumerical measurements or
entries. counts.
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Types of Variables

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 Levels of Measurement
The level of measurement determines which statistical
calculations are meaningful. The four levels of
measurement are: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Nominal
Levels Lowest
Ordinal to
of
Measurement Interval highest

Ratio

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 Nominal Level of Measurement
Data at the nominal level of measurement are
qualitative only.
Nominal
Levels Calculated using names,
of labels, or qualities. No
Measurement mathematical computations
can be made at this level.

Colors Names of Textbooks you

in the students in your are using this
US flag class semester

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 Ordinal Level of Measurement
Data at the ordinal level of measurement are qualitative
or quantitative.

Levels
of Ordinal
Measurement Arranged in order, but
differences between data
entries are not meaningful.

Class standings: Numbers on the Top 50 songs

freshman, back of each played on the
sophomore, player’s shirt radio
junior, senior
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 Interval Level of Measurement
Data at the interval level of measurement are
quantitative. A zero entry simply represents a position on
a scale; the entry is not an inherent zero.
Levels
of
Measurement Interval
Arranged in order, the differences
between data entries can be
calculated.
Temperatures Years on a Atlanta Braves
timeline World Series
victories

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 Ratio Level of Measurement
Data at the ratio level of measurement are similar to the
interval level, but a zero entry is meaningful.

Levels A ratio of two data values can be

of formed so one data value can be
Measurement expressed as a ratio.

Ratio

Ages Grade point Weights

averages

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Summary of Levels of Measurement
Arrang Determine if
Put data
Level of e data Subtract one data value
in
measurement in data values is a multiple of
categories
order another
Nominal Yes No No No
Ordinal Yes Yes No No
Interval Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes

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 Exercise
1. Salary
2. Zip codes
3. Judging (first place, second place, etc.)
4. Religious affiliation
5. IQ
6. Temperature
7. Likert Scale

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 Exercise
1. A survey asks people to identify their age, annual income, and marital status (single, married, divorced,
etc.). For each of these three variables, identify the scale of measurement that probably is used and
identify whether the variable is continuous or discrete.

2. An English professor uses letter grades (A, B, C, D, and F) to evaluate a set of student essays. What kind
of scale is being used to measure the quality of the essays?

3. The teacher in a communications class asks students to identify their favorite real- ity television show.
The different television shows make up a ______ scale of measurement.

4. A researcher studies the factors that determine the number of children that couples decide to have.
The variable, number of children, is a ______________ (discrete/continuous) variable.

5. a. When measuring height to the nearest inch, what are the real limits for a score of 68 inches?

6. b. When measuring height to the nearest half inch, what are the real limits for a score of 68 inches?

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1. What are the variables under study?

2. Categorize each variable as quantitative or qualitative.

3. Categorize each quantitative variable as discrete or continuous.

4. Identify the level of measurement for each variable.

5. The railroad is shown as the safest transportation industry. Does that mean
railroads have fewer accidents than the other industries? Explain.

6. What factors other than safety influence a person’s choice of transportation?

7. From the information given, comment on the relationship between the variables.

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1.E. Experimental Design

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 Designing a Statistical Study
 GUIDELINES
1. Identify the variable(s) of interest (the focus) and the population
of the study.
2. Develop a detailed plan for collecting data. If you use a sample,
make sure the sample is representative of the population.
3. Collect the data.
4. Describe the data.
5. Interpret the data and make decisions about the population using
inferential statistics.
6. Identify any possible errors.

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 Methods of Data Collection
In an observational study, a researcher observes and
measures characteristics of interest of part of a population.
In an experiment, a treatment is applied to part of a
population, and responses are observed.
A simulation is the use of a mathematical or physical
model to reproduce the conditions of a situation or
process.
A survey is an investigation of one or more characteristics
of a population.
A census is a measurement of an entire population.

A sampling is a measurement of part of a population.

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 Random Sampling
 Random samples are selected by using chance methods or
random numbers. One such method is to number each
subject in the population.

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 Stratified Samples
A stratified sample has members from each segment of a
population (called strata). This ensures that each segment
from the population is represented.

Freshmen Sophomores Juniors Seniors

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 Cluster Samples
A cluster sample has all members from randomly selected
segments of a population. This is used when the
population falls into naturally occurring subgroups.

All members
in each
selected
group are
used.

The city of Clarksville divided into city

blocks. 45
 Systematic Samples
A systematic sample is a sample in which each member of
the population is assigned a number. A starting number is
randomly selected and sample members are selected at
regular intervals.

Every fourth member is chosen.

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 Convenience Samples
A convenience sample consists only of available members
of the population.

Continued.
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 Exercise
Example:
You are doing a study to determine the number of years of
education each teacher at your college has. Identify the
sampling technique used if you select the samples listed.

1.) You randomly select two different departments and survey

each teacher in those departments.

2.) You select only the teachers you currently have this semester.

3.) You divide the teachers up according to their department and

then choose and survey some teachers in each department.Continued.
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 The Misuse of Statistics
1. Sources of data not given: At times, the source of data is not given. In the absence of the source, the
reader does not know how far the data are reliable. Further, if he wants to refer to the original source, he is
unable to do so.

2. Defective data: Another misuse is that sometimes one gives defective data. This may be done knowingly
in order to defend one's position or to prove a particular point.

3. Unrepresentative sample: In statistics, several times one has to conduct a survey, which necessitates to
choose a sample from the given population or universe.

4. Inadequate sample: Earlier, we have seen that a sample that is unrepresentative of the universe is a major
misuse of statistics.

5. Unfair Comparisons: An important misuse of statistics is making unfair comparisons from the data
collected.

6. Unwanted conclusions: Another misuse of statistics may be on account of unwarranted conclusions.

7. Confusion of correlation and causation: In statistics, several times one has to examine the relationship
between two variables.

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Summation Notation

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 Summation Notation

Sometimes mathematical notation helps

express a mathematical relationship
concisely. This section describes the
summation notation that is used to denote
the sum of values.

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Summation Notation

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EXAMPLEs

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 References
 Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences by Gravetter & Wallnau

 Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach by Bluman

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