NMT 06106 Fundamentals of Research

FUNDAMENTALS OF MR.
RESEARCH NASSORO
NMT 06106 SAID. BScN
1
SESSION 1: BASIC
CONCEPTS OF ACTION
RESEARCH ON NURSING
AND MIDWIFERY
PRACTICE
2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session a learner is

expected to be able to:
Define research and action research
Explain the importance of action research
Explain types of research
Identify sources of research problems
Outline criteria used to prioritize research
problems
3
RESEARCH AND ACTION
RESEARCH
Research is defined in many ways by
experts(.e.g. Grove, Burns & Gray, 2012)
Research is a the diligent, systematic
inquiry or investigation to validate and
refine existing knowledge and generate
new knowledge
Research is a systematic inquiry that
uses disciplined methods to answer
questions or solve problems.
4
RESEARCH AND ACTION
RESEARCH
Research is a rigorous and systematic
process for collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting data (information) to answer
questions about a phenomenon or solve a
problem.
5
RESEARCH AND ACTION
RESEARCH
Action research
Action research is a form of research
that is conducted by a practitioner for the
purposes of understanding and improving
practices of a given profession.
 Other terms for action research are
practice-based research and practitioner
research.
6
IMPORTANCE OF ACTION
RESEARCH
The importance of conducting action
research to any profession are:
Helps to understand practice of a given
profession (e.g. nursing profession):
what challenges do nursing professional
encounter in their practice of services
delivery?
7
IMPORTANCE OF ACTION
RESEARCH
Helps to identify what actions should be

taken to improve practice of given
profession:
evidence generated by research are used
to improve the practice of a profession
8
TYPES OF RESEARCH
According to research experts, types of
research fall under:
1. Quantitative Research
2. Qualitative Research
9
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research involves the
systematic collection of numerical data,
often under
conditions of considerable control
and the analysis of that information
using statistical procedures.
10
Also referred to as hard research
(generating numeric findings, hard data)
tends to emphasize;
deductive reasoning
the rules of logic
and the measurable attributes of human
experiences.
11
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Involves systematic collection and analysis
of more subjective narrative materials, using
procedures in which there tends to be a
minimum of researcher-imposed control.
Also referred to as soft research, generating
finding in words ( soft data).
12
Tends to emphasize the dynamic,
holistic, and individual aspects of the
human experience.
Attempts to capture those aspects in their
entity, within the context of those who are
experiencing them.
13
SOURCES OF RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
There are different sources of RP
Nursing practice: through practising
nursing, problems that need research can
be identified.
Researcher and peer Interaction:
through researcher interactions and
discussion research problems can be
identified.
14
SOURCES OF RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
Literature review: literature review
facilitate in identifying research problems
Theories: through reviewing theories,
research problems can be identified
Research priorities or research agenda:
professional and research authorities can
identifies problems or issues that need
research.
15
SOURCES OF RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
Three conditions must exist for a situation
or problem to warrant research efforts:
There should be a perceived difference
or discrepancy between what exists and
what is ideal or the planned situation.
The reasons for this difference should be
unclear, so that it makes sense to develop
a research question.
16
SOURCES OF RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
There should be more than one possible

answer to the question or solution to the
problem.
17
CRITERIA FOR PRIORITIZING
RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Relevance: is the problem or issues

related to practice or policy?
Avoidance of duplication.
Feasibility: can the research be
conducted on this problem or issue?
Political acceptability: is the issue or
problem acceptable to policy makers,
implementers or community members?
18
CRITERIA FOR PRIORITIZING
RESEARCH PROBLEMS
Applicability: can the finding be used to

improve practice or policy?
Urgency on data needed: the findings
urgently needed to guide decision-making
or practice?
Ethical acceptability: is it ethical to
conduct research on selected issue or
problem?
19
KEY POINTS
Research is important to any profession
as it help to understand the practices and
research findings be used to improve
practice
Researchers can identify research
problems in many ways, including
practices, literature review
Finally, researchers use a number of
criteria to select a research problem or
issues.
20
EVALUATION
21
SESSION 2:
INTRODUCTION TO A
RESEARCH PROPOSAL IN
NURSING AND
MIDWIFERY
22
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define research proposal
 Explain the importance of research
proposal
Outline elements of a research proposal
 Explain the research process
23
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the steps in developing research
proposal
Write an introduction of a research
proposal
24
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The term research proposal refers to:
 A plan developed by researchers to guide
how the research will be conducted
A written plan identifying the major
elements of a study, such as the problem,
purpose, and framework, and outlining the
methods to conduct the study; a formal
way to communicate ideas about a
proposed study to receive approval to
conduct the study and to seek funding
25
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Research proposal
refers to a document communicating a
research problem, its significance, proposed
procedures for solving the problem, and,
when funding is sought, how much the
study will cost.
26
IMPORTANCE OF A
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1. The proposal helps researcher to plan
his research in advance
2. The proposal helps researchers to
communicate the research intention to
other people
3. The research proposal helps to mobilize
findings from different people and
organization
27
ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
A research proposal document has the
following main elements (parts):
1. Abstract/summary, which summarizes
the following: background to research,
research objectives/questions, research
methods, work plan and budget
2. Introduction/background: this part
explain topic of research, summary of
research done, research problem,
objectives and rationale/justification
28
PROPOSAL
3. Literature review: this element

generates;
understanding of what is known about a
particular situation or problem
and to identify the knowledge gaps that
exists
29
PROPOSAL
4. Research methods: covering the
following issues:
research design/study type
research setting
study population and sampling
data collection methods and tools
data analysis
research ethics
and limitations
30
PROPOSAL
5. Work plan and budget: these elements

indicate research activities time frame,
and research costs.
31
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
 The process of research is conceptual

described in terms of phases and steps as
follows:
 There is five phase and every phase has a
key steps to be followed.
32
Phase 1: The conceptual phase
 This involve activities with a strong
conceptual or intellectual element such as
thinking, reading, rethinking, theorizing,
and reviewing ideas with colleagues or
advisers.
 The researcher uses such skills as
creativity, deductive reasoning,
insightfulness and a firm grounding in
knowledge on a topic of interest.
33
 Key steps of this phase are:

1)Formulating and delimiting the problem
or statement of the problem
2)Reviewing the related literature
3)Developing a theoretical framework
4)Formulating a hypothesis or research
questions.
34
Phase 2: The Design and Planning Phase
 The researcher or investigator makes a
number of decisions about the research
methods
 The steps of this phase are
1)Methods to be used to address the research
questions and test the hypothesis.
2)Selecting the research design
35
3. Identifying the population to be studied.
4. Designing the sampling plan.
5. Specifying the methods to collect the
research data.
6. Carefully plan for the data collection.
7. Finalizing and reviewing the research plan.
8. Conducting the pilot study and making
revisions.
36
Phase 3: The Empirical Phase

 This involves the actual collection of
research data and preparation of those
data for analysis.
 This is the most time consuming part of
the investigation. It may require several
weeks or months of work depending on
the method used.
37
 The steps at this phase are:

1)Collecting the data.
2)Preparing the data for analysis
38
Phase 4: The Analytic Phase

This phase is about analysis data and
interpretation of findings
 Key steps of this phase are:
1)Analysing the data.
2)Interpreting the results.
39
Phase 5: The Disseminations Phase

 This phase is about communicating and
using research findings
 There are two steps in this phase, which
are:
1)Communicating the findings.
2)Utilizing the research findings.
40
STEPS IN DEVELOPING
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is developed by going
through the following specific steps:
1. Writing an introduction:
indication research topic and its
importance,
statement of the problem/research gaps,
justification/benefits of research
2. Reviewing the related literature
41
STEPS IN DEVELOPING
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
3. Developing a theoretical framework
4. Formulating a hypothesis or research
questions.
5. Selecting the research design and setting
6. Identifying the population and sample
size to be studied.
7. Designing the sampling plan: specifying
sampling techniques
42
STEPS IN DEVELOPING
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
8. Specifying methods and tools for
collecting data.
9. Specifying data analysis
methods/techniques
10.Developing research work plan and
budget
43
STEPS IN DEVELOPING
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
11.Considering ethical implications of the
research: stating how a research will be
done ethically
12.Finalizing and reviewing the research
proposal.
44
WRITING AN INTRODUCTION
OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
An introduction is the second part of a
research proposal.
The introduction of research proposal
normally is written to answer the following
key research questions:
1. What is the core problem or
phenomenon you have studied?
2. What have other researchers and
scholars learned about this issue?
45
3. What is not known about your problem

or phenomenon and why is it important
to fill this gap in our knowledge?
46
In writing the introduction of the research
proposal, follow the following guidelines:
1. Cleary indicate the research broad
research area ( e.g. reproductive
health), the specific topic (e.g. factors
maternal deaths) or phenomenon you
want to study.
Clearly state importance of the research
topic to the research field of study:
47
INTRODUCTION OF RESEARCH
PROPOSAL GUIDELINES CONT..
Two examples of stating the importance of

research topic:
1) Maternal deaths is one of recognized
health problems developing countries….;
2) Malarial is a public health problem in
Tanzania. Last year malaria was
responsible for…deaths among under-five
children in X hospitals
48
3. Summarise briefly what others

researchers have learnt or found about
the research topic you want to study.
4. State clearly research gap: what is not
known about your problem or
phenomenon
49
5. State the rationale:
why is it important to fill the gap
knowledge you have identifies in your
research topic;
state how your research will address the
gaps; and
state how the findings will be used to
improve knowledge, professional practices,
and policy or research practices
50
KEY POINTS
Research proposal is an important research
document; it’s used for documenting plan
for conducting research, communicating
with other people and for mobilizing
resources for conducting research.
Research proposal is developed by going
through specific steps, which are part of
the overall research process.
51
EVALUATION
52
SESSION 3:
FORMULATION OF
RESEARCH QUESTIONS,
HYPOTHESIS AND
OBJECTIVES
53
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Define research questions, objectives and
hypothesis
 Classify types of research questions,
objectives and hypothesis
 Explain features of good research questions
and objectives
 Write research objectives and research
questions
54
RESEARCH QUESTIONS,
OBJECTIVES AND
HYPOTHESIS
Research question
Research question is an interrogative
statement that identifies the phenomenon,
situation or certain characteristics to be
studied.
Research question may be defined as a
question(s) that a researcher intends to
answer through doing a research.
55
RESEARCH QUESTIONS,
OBJECTIVES AND
HYPOTHESIS
Research objectives
A research objective is statement that
indicates what a research intend to achieve
Research hypothesis
Research hypothesis is a formal statement
formulated by a researcher to predict a
relation between two or more variables in a
selected population.
56
CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH QUESTION,
OBJECTIVES AND
HYPOTHESES
Classification of research questions
Research questions can be classified into
two types:
Broad research questions: one or two broad
or general research questions are usually
developed in a research, e.g. what is the
use of family planning methods in X
region in Tanzania
57
Specific research questions: these are clear
and specific research questions that a
research intends to answer in a research. For
the above broad questions, specific questions
may be:
What is the % of women aged 15-49 who
use traditional planning methods in x
region?
What is the % of women aged 15-49 who
use modern planning methods in x region?
Does educational level of women influence
use of modern planning methods?
58
CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
As for research questions, research
objectives can be classified into two types:
Broad research objectives: E.g.: To assess
the use of family planning methods in X
region in Tanzania.
Specific research objectives: E.g.:
To determine the % of women aged 15-49
years who use traditional planning methods
in x region.
59
To determine the % of women aged 15-49
years who use modern planning methods in
x region?
To assess association(relationship) between
educational level of women and use of
modern planning methods in x region
60
CLASSIFICATION OF
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Research hypotheses can be classified into
two groups:
Null hypotheses: e.g. there is no relationship
between educational level and use of modern
family planning methods among women
aged 15-49 years in x region.
Alternative hypotheses: there is relationship
between educational level and use of modern
planning methods among women aged 15-49
years in X region
61
FEATURES OF GOOD
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND
OBJECTIVES
Good specific research questions and
objectives have
1. Clear: they can be easily understood
2. Specific: they are specific to a variable
or an aspect of research topic
3. Answerable (researchable): the show
what data are needed and data can be
collected using available time and other
resources
62
FEATURES OF GOOD
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND
OBJECTIVES
4. Relevant: they are related to the
research topic and them important to
knowledge, policy and practice of a
give field.
5. Related to theory/literature/research
gap: they are useful in filling a research
gap identified in the literature/theory.
63
FORMULATING RESEARCH
QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES
In formulating research questions or
objectives, adhere to the following guidelines:
The formulated question should be clear:
easily understood
The formulated question or objective should
specific to an aspect of research topic or
variable
64
Proposed research question or objective
should be answerable, given time and other
resources available.
The formulated research question or objective
should be relevant: related to topic and
importance to the field of study
The formulated question or research should
be related to an identified research gap.
In formulating research question, start with
one the following words: what, when, which,
where, who, and how.
65
In writing research objectives may use
the following word: to determine, to
assess, to describe, to measure, to explore,
to find out….
66
KEY POINTS
Research questions and objective are
important elements of any research and
researchers are required to formulate them
Good research question and objectives are
required to meet certain features set by
researchers; the key features are explained
in this session
To do research, researchers are required to
formulate research questions and objectives
that meet these features.
67
EVALUATION
68
SESSION 4:
CONDUCTING
LITERATURE REVIEW
69
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define term literature and literature review
Classify literature
Describe the process of conducting a
literature review
Explain features of good literature review
Write a literature review
70
LITERATURE AND
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature refers to all written sources
relevant to the topic you have selected
Literature are essential components to any
scholarly work and disciplined research
Literature include the following written
sources: scientific journals, conference papers,
theses, dissertations, professional books,
textbooks, encyclopaedias, dictionaries,
websites and
71
reports developed by government agencies
and professional organizations, and
newspapers.
Literature review is an organized written
presentation or account of literature
surveyed/read the researcher or reviewer
Also, the term literature review refers to the
process reviewing—to “looking again” at (re
+ viewing)—what others have done in the
selected topic or areas the similar, though not
necessarily identical to, one’s own topic of
investigation.
72
BENEFITS TO ENGAGING IN
LITERATURE REVIEW
There benefits to engaging in literature
review; these benefits are as follows:
1. It can help researcher to find whether
other researchers have already addressed
and answered the research problem or at
least some of its sub-problems.
2. It can offer new ideas, perspectives, and
approaches that may not have occurred
to researcher.
73
3. It can inform researcher about other
individuals who conduct work in this area
—individuals whom may be contact for
advice or feedback.
4. It can alert research to controversial issues
and gaps in understanding that have not
yet been resolved—issues and gaps the
researcher may decide to work.
5. It can show researcher how others have
handled methodological and design issues
in studies similar to researcher’s study.
74
6. It can reveal sources of data you may not
have known existed.
7. It can introduce researcher to measurement
tools that other researchers have developed
and effectively used.
8. It can help you interpret and make sense of
researcher’ findings and, ultimately, help
researcher tie results to the work of those
who have preceded the researcher.
9. It can bolster researcher’s confidence to
research topic.
75
CLASSIFICATION OF
LITERATURE
Literature may be classified into three
classes or types:
Primary literature:
these are research-based literature
containing primary findings of the research;
examples of primary literature are research
articles, dissertations, these and books
containing primary findings of research.
76
Secondary literature: these literature
summarizing the findings from research
articles; examples of secondary literature
are professional books and textbooks for a
given field (e.g. community nursing).
Tertiary literature: These literatures that
are used a reference; examples of tertiary
literature are dictionaries and
encyclopaedias.
77
Alternatively, literature can be classified
into the following types:
Theoretical literature (secondary
sources)
Empirical literature (primary sources)
Theoretical literature (secondary sources):
professional non-research literature ( e.g.
text book or professional book)
Empirical literature (primary sources):
research-based literature (e.g. research
articles, research report, dissertation/thesis)
78
THE PROCESS OF
CONDUCTING A LITERATURE
Select a topic for literature review;
Develop or use proposed research
questions and objectives as guides;
Develop a literature search strategy
consisting of key words or search terms;
 Search the literature from electronic
databases and library.
79
Appraise or screen the literature for
inclusion or exclusion;
Sample the identified literature: select
key literature to use
Extract data required from the literature
and summarize the extracted data; and
 Write up and present a literature review
in structured and logical way
80
FEATURES OF GOOD
LITERATURE REVIEW
A well written literature review demonstrates
the following features:
1. Address or related to research questions
2. Structured: organized into three main
sections, which are introduction, body and
conclusion
3. Organized: logical flow of information
4. Critical: critically evaluate written sources
indicating their strengths and weaknesses
81
FEATURES OF GOOD
LITERATURE REVIEW
5. Informative: Indicate status of the topic
(show what is known and unknown), e.g.
key concepts , research methods, and
findings
6. Include key and current literature
7. Comprehensive: include key concepts ,
research methods, and findings related to
research topic
8. Written by using an appropriate referencing
style: e.g. APA style, Harvard style
82
WRITING A LITERATURE
REVIEW
To write a good literature review as part of
the research proposal, the following
guidelines should be adhered to:
Before writing, prepare an outline of the
literature review covering the following: an
introduction, discussion of theoretical
literature, discussion of empirical literature,
and summary.
83
REVIEW
The introduction of the literature review
should:
Indicate focus of the literature review: e.g.
this literature focus on the use of modern family
planning methods in developing countries
Identify the purpose of the literature review:
e.g. the purpose of this review to present
theoretical concepts and empirical findings on
84
REVIEW
-use of modern family planning methods

among women aged 15-49 years.
presents the organizational structure of the
review: e.g. the review is organized into
three main sections: discussion of theoretical
literature; discussion of empirical findings
and summary of literature review
85
REVIEW
Theoretical literature section should cover
issues such as concept analyses, models,
theories, and conceptual frameworks that
support the research purpose.
Empirical literature section should present
and discuss issues such as types of research
conducted, research findings, strengths and
weaknesses of previous research, strengths
of findings(evidence), and gaps and areas
needing more research
86
REVIEW
Summary section should:
1) presentation of the current knowledge base
for the research problem;
2) the gaps in the knowledge base are
identified, with a discussion of how the
proposed study will contribute to the
development of knowledge in the defined
field of research;
87
3. statement of how the proposed study will
contribute to the body of knowledge in this
field of research.
The literature should use appropriate academic
language acceptable professionals
The literature should contain key literature and
current literature
The literature should be written using
appropriate referencing styles such as American
Psychological Association (APA), Harvard, and
Vancouver style
88
KEY POINTS
Conducting a literature review is an important
process and skills for conducting research
In writing literature review, writer have follow
some guidelines, which are suggested in this
session
Researchers use a combination of literature to
write their literature review section or chapter
of their research proposal or research such as
theoretical literature and empirical literature.
89
EVALUATION
90
FUNDAMENTALS OF MR.
RESEARCH NASSORO
NMT 06106 SAID
91
SESSION 5
RESEARCH
DESIGNS
92
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define terms research design and
research setting
Describe common research designs
Select a research design and research
setting for a research project
93
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Research design is the strategy, the plan, and
the structure of conducting a research project.
The research design is a comprehensive
master plan of the research study to be
undertaken, giving a general statement of the
methods to be used.
The function of a research design is to
ensure that requisite data in accordance with
the problem at hand is collected accurately
and economically.
94
RESEARCH DESIGNS
A design or a structure before data
collection or analysis can commence when
designing research we need to ask: given
this research question (or theory), what
type of evidence is needed to answer the
question (or test the theory) in a
convincing way?
95
RESEARCH SETTING
Research setting (place of study)
The research setting area is the location
where a study is conducted.
This is denotes a place where study
participants are located or where data are
collected by researchers
96
Research settings are of three types:
1. Natural research settings (field settings): an
uncontrolled, real-life situation or
environment( e.g. Village).
2. Partially controlled research settings:
environments that the researcher
manipulates or modifies in some way.
3. Highly controlled research setting:
artificially constructed environment
developed for the sole purpose of
conducting research (e.g. Laboratory).
97
TYPES OF RESEARCH
DESIGNS
The common research design fall under two
broad categories:
Quantitative designs
Qualitative designs
98
DESIGNS
1. Exploratory design: The exploratory
research design involves getting a feel of the
situation and emphasizes a discovery of
ideas and possible insights that may help in
identifying areas of further rigorous study
2. Descriptive design: This type of designs is
employed to facilitate description and
inference building about population
parameters and the relationship among two
or more variables.
99
Description or inference could be
quantitative or qualitative in nature.
Descriptive design only describes the
phenomenon under study attempting to
establish a relationship between factors.
 It is the most commonly design used
category of research design.
100
DESIGNS
3. Explanatory design:
Explanatory design is a very structured in
nature and sometime referred to as
analytical design
It aimed at identifying any causal links
between the factors or variables that pertain
to the research problem
101
DESIGNS
4. Experimental designs:
Experimental design is concerned with
causal- and- effect relationships
Causal- and effect relationship occurs when
one thing or event makes some other thing or
event to happen
Experimental designs involves manipulation
or control of the independent variable (cause)
and measurement of the dependent variables
(effect)
102
DESIGNS
5. Non-experimental designs:
Non-experimental designs do not involve
manipulation of various variables
Examples are cross-sectional descriptive
studies, cross-sectional analytical studies,
and longitudinal studies
103
DESIGNS
1. Phenomenological design:
focuses on the lived experiences. It usually
describe the meaning that experiences hold
for each participant,
2. Ethnographic design:
involve studies of analysis of data about the
life ways or particular pattern of a culture (or
sub-culture)
104
3. Grounded theory: design that focuses on
theory construction/theory development
4. Historical study designs: Studies geared
at analysing the data from the past. Seeks
to discover the events of the past and
relate them to what is happening to the
present and to the future.
5. Case study: Designs focusing into
looking at in-depth examination of people
or groups of people, institutions, or
organizations.
105
SELECTING A RESEARCH
DESIGN
To select an appropriate research design to
use in a research, researchers consider many
factors, including the following:
1. Research questions or objectives:
quantitative research questions or
objectives are better addressed by
quantitative research designs; whereas
qualitative research questions are better
addressed by qualitative research designs
(e.g. case study).
106
SELECTING A RESEARCH
DESIGN
2. Available resources:
when resources are limited, descriptive
studies or explanatory research are suitable
research designs
3. Skills of the researcher:
Researchers with quantitative skills tend
to prefer quantitative research designs to
qualitative designs.
107
KEY POINTS
Research designs and setting are
important elements of research proposal and
research report
Research can be conducting in a number of
settings
 Selection of research design can be
influenced by many factors, commonest
being research questions/objectives,
available resources and skills of the
researchers.
108
EVALUATION
109
FUNDAMENTALS OF MR.
RESEARCH NASSORO
NMT 06106 SAID
110
Session 6: Sampling
Techniques and
Sample Size
111
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define the terms related to sampling
Explain the importance of sampling in
research
Explain sampling techniques
Select sampling techniques
Explain sources of bias in research
Determine the sample size for a research
112
DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS
Population
The population is a particular group of
people, organizations, events behaviours or
other elements that are the focus of a
research
Target population
The target population is the entire set of
individuals or elements who meet the
sampling criteria
113
Accessible population
An accessible population is the portion of the
target population to which the researchers
have reasonable access
114
Sampling
Sampling is a process of selecting a
limited number of units( e.g. organizations,
people, cases, events, behaviour) from a
larger set for a study
It is also defined a process that involves
selecting a group of people, events,
behaviours, or other elements with which
to conduct a research
115
Elements (sampling units)
Elements are individual units of the
population and sample.
An element can be a person, an
organization, event, behaviour, or any other
single unit of study.
When elements are persons, they are
usually referred to as subjects or research
Students or informants.
116
Sampling frame
Sampling frame usually denote a complete
list of all the elements in a population who
meet the sampling criteria.
Census
The term census refers to the entire
population of interest.
117
Sample
The term sample denotes a segment of
population or a selected group of people or
elements for inclusion in a study
There are two types of samples:
Probability sample
Non-probability sample
118
1. Probability sample: a sample that has
been selected using random selection so
that each unit in the population has a
known chance of being selected.
It is generally assumed to be a
representative sample for the population
2. Non-probability sample: a sample that
has not been selected using a random
selection method.
Essentially this implies that some units in
the population are more likely to be selected
than others.
119
Sampling criteria
Sampling criteria (eligibility criteria)
include a list of characteristics essential for
membership or eligibility in the target
population
The sampling criteria determine the target
population, and the sample is selected from
the accessible population within the target
population
120
Research may have both inclusion and
exclusion sampling criteria:
Inclusion sampling criteria: are
characteristics that a subject or element must
possess to be part of the target population.
Example inclusion sampling criteria may be
the ability to read, to write responses
Exclusion sampling criteria: are
characteristics that can cause a person or
element to be excluded from the target
population. Example exclusion criteria
inability to read or write.
121
Sampling plan
A sampling plan is a plan that describes the
process and sampling techniques (methods)
for selecting a sample from sampling
frame.
122
123
IMPORTANCE OF SAMPLING
IN RESEARCH
Sampling process is important to researcher
and research process for the following two
major reasons:
It help to obtain sample from large
population when the entire population
members cannot be included in the research
It helps to use the limited research
resources effectively to obtain adequate
information by using sample rather than
entire population
124
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sampling techniques refers to the specific
method, design, approach, or strategy that a
researcher decides to use to select a sample
from the larger population.
Sampling techniques can be broadly into
two main categories:
Probability sampling techniques
Nonprobability sampling techniques
125
CATEGORIES OF
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
Probability sampling techniques: refers to
sampling techniques that ensure that every
member (element) of the population has a
probability (chance) being selected to form
sample (probability is being included in the
study is higher than zero
Nonprobability sampling techniques:
denote sampling techniques that do not ensure
that every element of the population has an
opportunity to be included in the sample
126
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
The following is list of sampling techniques
which fall under probability sampling
techniques:
1. Simple random sampling technique
Every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected.
It used when the population is small and
all of its members are known.
127
2. Systematic random sampling
technique
The process involves selecting every kth
individual on the list, using a starting point
selected randomly.
Example selecting every 4th nursing
student in an alphabetical list of third
year nursing student
Used when an ordered list of all members
of the population is available
128
3. Stratified sampling technique
In this technique, the population is
categorised into strata or layers
Used when the researcher knows some of the
variables in the population are critical to
achieving representativeness.
Variables commonly used for stratification
are age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic
status, diagnosis, geographical region, type of
institution, type of care, care provider, and site
of care
129
4. Cluster sampling technique
The technique use natural cluster such as village,
street, council, and region; cluster are selected
by simple random sampling technique
 The techniques is used under two conditions:
 When a simple random sample would be
prohibitive in terms of travel time and cost
 When the individual elements making up the
population are unknown, preventing the
development of a sampling frame.
130
5. Multi-stage cluster sampling technique
Here several stages of cluster sampling
technique is done to obtain research sample:
in first stage, three councils are selected for
inclusion;
in sector stage, three villages are selected for
each council;
in third stage, two streets are selected from
each village
lastly, each household is selected for
inclusion in the study of assessing use of
toilet
131
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
Some of the common nonprobability
sampling techniques are:
1. Purposive sampling technique:
use to for selecting information-rich
people or organization on a select research
topic
the process whereby the researcher
selects a sample based on experience or
knowledge of the group to be sampled
132
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
Snowball sampling techniques: use to
get people are difficult to reach, difficult to
identify or impossible to obtain in other
ways; example people who are difficulty to
locate are alcoholics, child abusers, sex
offenders, drug addicts, and criminals.
Start with one or two information-rich key
informants and ask them if they know
persons who know a lot about your topic of
interest.
133
134
SELECTING SAMPLE FOR
RESEARCH
Selection of sampling techniques is

determined by the following issues:
1. Nature of the research topic: in
sensitive topics like commercial sex and
drug addicts, snowballing sampling may
be appropriate
135
2. Research questions and objectives: research
questions or objectives that seek to
understand complex issues will need
purposeful sampling techniques;
Research questions or objectives that look for
association or relationship will need
probability sampling techniques such stratified
or cluster sampling techniques.
3. Accessibility of the research Students:
Students who are difficulty to locate may
require use of probability sampling
techniques such as commercial sex workers.
136
GUIDELINES FOR SELECTING
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
In selecting a sampling techniques, the
following guidelines should be adhered to:
Select a sampling techniques that will enable
get sample that will provide the required data
Select sampling technique or techniques that
will adequately help in answering research
question
Select a sampling techniques that will enable
you access adequate number of research
participant
137
SOURCES OF BIAS IN
RESEARCH
Bias in sampling is a systematic error in
sampling procedures, which leads to a
distortion in the results of the study.
Bias can be introduced as a consequence of
improper sampling procedures, which result
in the sample not being representative of the
study population.
There are several possible sources of bias
that may arise when sampling.
138
SOURCES OF BIAS IN
RESEARCH
The most well-known source is non-
response.
It is important in any study to mention the
non-response rate and to honestly discuss
whether and how the non-response might
have influenced the results.
139
SOURCES OF BIAS IN
RESEARCH
Some Sources of Biases in Sampling
Studying volunteers only: The fact that
volunteers are motivated to participate in the
study may mean that they are also different from
the study population on the factors being studied.
Therefore it is better to avoid using non-
random selection procedures that introduce such
an element of choice.
140
SOURCES OF BIAS IN
RESEARCH
Sampling of registered patients only:
Patients reporting to a clinic are likely to
differ systematically from people seeking
alternative treatments.
Missing cases of short duration: In
studies of the prevalence of disease, cases
of short duration are more likely to be
missed. This may mean missing fatal cases,
cases with short illness episodes and mild
cases.
141
SOURCES OF BIAS IN
RESEARCH
Seasonal bias: It may be that the problem
under study, for example, malnutrition,
exhibits different characteristics in different
seasons of the year.
For this reason, data should be collected
on the prevalence and distribution of
diarrhoea in under five children in a
community during all seasons rather than
just at one point in time.
142
SOURCES OF BIAS IN
RESEARCH
Tarmac bias: Study areas are often

selected because they are easily accessible
by car. However, these areas are likely to be
systematically different from more in
accessible areas.
143
APPROACHES FOR
SAMPLE SIZE
DETERMINATION
Sample size in in study varies depending on a
number of factors, which include the
following:
1. Nature of the study: qualitative studies
tend to have small sample size (on average
32 people) than quantitative research,
which require a large sample.
Sample size in qualitative research is
determining saturation point, where no new
information is generated.
144
2. Number of variables: the more variables the
large the sample
3. Analysis techniques: quantitative analysis
require large sample size than qualitative
analysis
4. Nature topic: If the topic of your study is
clear and the Students can easily discuss it,
fewer individuals are needed to obtain the
essential data.
145
If the topic is difficult to define and
awkward for people to discuss, you will
probably need a larger number of Students or
informants to saturate the data
5. Quality of data: The higher the quality
and richness of the data, the fewer the
research Students needed to saturate data
in the area of study.
Quality data are best obtained from
articulate, well-informed, and
communicative Students.
146
6. Scope of the study: If the scope of a
study is broad, researchers need extensive
data to address the study purpose, and it
takes longer to reach data saturation.
A study with a purpose that has a broad
scope requires more sampling of Students,
events, or documents than a study with a
narrow scope
7. Data collection methods: Interview
require less small sample size than
administration of questionnaire
147
APPROACHES FOR
DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
Sample size determination in quantitative
studies can be done by the following common
approaches:
Using a census for small populations: use
the entire population as the sample.
Using a sample size of a similar study:
use the same sample sizes as those of studies
similar to the one a researcher plan to do.
148
APPROACHES FOR SAMPLE
SIZE DETERMINATION
Using published tables: rely on published
tables which provide the sample size for a
given set of criteria; sample of these table
are available on the internet
Using formulas to calculate a sample
size: use formula to calculate sample size
149
There a number of formula that can be
used to calculate the sample size
A common formula for calculating a
sample size based on single proportion as
follow:
Called Cochran’s formula.
no=z2pq
e2

150
Whereby; desired level of precision margin
error (e) =0.05; confidence interval gives as z-
value (z) =1.96; sample proportion (p) =0.5;
q=1-P; No=sample size
no=z2pq
e 2
We use the confidence interval of 95% which

gives us z-value of 1.96.
151
Modification of cochran’s formula for
smaller population.
Where by, n = sample size, no = Cochran’s
sample size and N = population size.
152
KEY POINTS
Sampling and sample are important
elements of research
In planning their research, researchers need
to consider sampling techniques and
determine which one is appropriate for
research
Sample size determination is a key skill for
any person engaged in research; sample size
determination is done by considering a
number of factors and by using four
common approaches.
153
EVALUATION
154
DATA COLLECTION
METHODS AND
TOOLS 155
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define terms data and information
Explain common data collection methods
Outline common data collection tools
Explain sources of bias in data collection
Explain reliability and validity of data
Select data collection methods and tools
156
DATA AND INFORMATION
Data are raw, unanalyzed number and
facts about events, people, organizations,
behaviours or other elements that are the
focus of a research
Information is meaningfully analyzed
and organized collection of facts or data
about events, people, organizations,
behaviours or other elements that are the
focus of a research.
157
DATA COLLECTION AND
DATA COLLECTION TOOLS
Data collection is defined as a systematic
method or technique of gathering or
generation of data to answer and meet
research questions or objectives.
Data collection tools refer to instruments
that researchers use to collect or generate
research tools.
158
COMMON DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
Data collection methods fall under two

broad categories:
Direct data collection methods:
Indirect data correction methods:
159
DIRECT DATA
COLLECTION METHODS
Direct data collection methods: data are
collected directly from primary sources, which
may be a person, organization, or thing.
Common methods under this categorist are:
1. Administering a questionnaire: This a
method in which a questionnaire is
administered to capture required data. For
example, a questionnaire can be
administered to patient to collect data on age,
education, health care-seeking behaviours
(practices).
160
2. Interviewing: This is a direct conversation
between an interviewer and individual
(interviewee) aimed at obtaining data to
answer research questions and meet research
objectives; it can be done to a group of
people.
For example, this method can be used to
capture data on related to opinion, feeling or
behaviors of clients after a treatment.
data on temperature, height, weight
161
3. Observation: This method of data
collection where researchers collect data
by watching an individual, event,
behavior, practice or object.
For example, this method is used to
generate data for a skill, procedure,
practices.
This methods can be used capture
pathophysiological
162
INDIRECT DATA
COLLECTION METHOD
Indirect data collection method: data are
gathered from the secondary sources, which is
commonly documents or database.
Documents reviewing: this is a way of
collecting or generating data from secondary
sources, usually from written documents,
database, website or picture.
For example, this method can be used to
obtain data for immunization coverage in given
community using immunization documents
maintained by a health facilities.
163
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
COLLECTION METHOD
Data collection methods can also be
classified broadly into two broad categories
Quantitative data collection methods
Qualitative data collection methods
164
QUANTITATIVE DATA
COLLECTION METHODS
Quantitative data collection methods, which
include the following methods
1. Administration of questionnaire: a
questionnaire is administered to research
Students
2. Structured interviewing: face to face
interviewing using interview schedule
containing mainly closed questions
165
QUANTITATIVE DATA
COLLECTION METHODS
3. Document reviewing: capturing

quantitative data from written sources or
database
4. Structured observation, where observer
observes pre-determined behaviours,
actions, and events using structure data
collection tools such a checklist or rating
scale
166
QUALITATIVE DATA
COLLECTION METHODS
Qualitative data collection methods, which
include the following methods:
1. Semi-structured or unstructured
interviewing: using interview guide
containing a list of areas or questions to
be covered with each participant
2. Unstructured observation, a researcher
observes un-predetermine behaviours,
actions, and events.
167
QUALITATIVE DATA
COLLECTION METHODS
3. Focused group discussion
(interviewing), where a group of
people are interviewed
4. Document reviewing, mainly to
capture qualitative data in form of
words, text or picture using compilation
sheet.
168
METHODS
Data collection techniques can complement
each other and more than one data collection
methods can be used in single study
A skilful use of a combination of different
techniques can reduce the chance of bias and
give a more comprehensive understanding of
the topic under study.
169
METHODS
Researchers often use a combination of
flexible and less flexible research
techniques.
Flexible techniques, such as:
Loosely structured interviews using
open-ended questions,
Focus group discussions and
observations are also called qualitative
research techniques.
170
TOOLS
The following are commonly used data
collection used by researchers:
1. Questionnaires: used when
administering a questionnaire is chosen
a data collection methods
2. Interview guides/interviews schedules:
used when the method of data
collection is Interviewing:
171
TOOLS
3. Checklists/rating scales/forms: these are

relevant for observation
4. Compilation-sheets/data extraction
forms: Used to collect data through
documents reviewing
172
SELECTION OF DATA
COLLECTION METHODS AND
TOOLS FOR RESEARCH
In planning and conducting research,
researchers may select and use one or
combination of data collection methods and
their related data collection tools.
In selecting data collection methods and
data collection tools, the following
guidelines should be adhered to:
173
SELECTION OF DATA
COLLECTION METHODS AND
TOOLS FOR RESEARCH
Select a data collection methods which is
appropriate to data required to answer the
research question and meet research objectives
Select a that data collection tool which is
appropriate to data collection method
Select a data collection tool that will
adequately capture the required data
Select a data collection tool which you can
easily use during data collection time.
174
KEY POINTS
Data collection methods are important
elements of research methods
There are four common data collection
common used by researchers
There are four common data collection
methods that researcher use to collect data
175
EVALUATION
176
DEVELOPING AND
USING DATA
COLLECTION
TOOLS 177
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Outline qualities of a data collection tools
Develop data collection tools
Pre-test data collection tools
Use data collection tools to collect data
178
QUALITIES OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
Validity of a data collection tool
Two concepts are used to describe qualities
of a data collection tools: validity and
reliability
Validity of a data collection tool refers to the
extent to which data collection to accurately
measure what they were intended to measure.
179
VALIDITY OF A DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
A valid data collection tool is tool that
accurately measures or captures what they
were intended to measure or denotes tool
that actually reflects or is able to measure
the construct being examined.
Valid data collection instrument contain
questions or statements relevant to the
construct or variable being measured.
180
VALIDITY OF A DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
Invalid data collection tool does not
accurately measures or captures what they
were intended to measure.
Validity in concern with the
appropriateness, meaningfulness, and
usefulness of the specific data collection
tools and inferences made from instrument
scores.
181
VALIDITY OF A DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
Validity of data collection varies from

one sample to another and from one
situation to another
Generally, researchers develop and use
valid data collection tool for each data
collection methods
182
RELIABILITY OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
Reliability of data collection tool is refers
to the extent to which data collection tool
can produce consistent data and findings if
the tool is repeated used to collect the
same data from the same source of data.
It also denotes the consistency of the
measures obtained of an attribute, item, or
situation in a study or clinical practice.
183
RELIABILITY OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
The greater the reliability or consistency
of the measures of a particular instrument,
the less random error in the measurement
method
In general, researchers need instruments
that are reliable and provide values with
only a small amount of error for each data
collection method.
184
RELIABILITY OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
Qualities of data collection tools (Validity
of the data collection tools) can be enhanced
by using the following strategies
Developing data collection tools which are
clear, understandable, and appropriate for
each data collection method,
 Request independent professionals to
review developed data collection tools,
Pilot-test and improve developed data
collection tools before collecting data
185
DEVELOPING DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
A number of data collection tools can be
developed and used to collect data for
research
Common developed and used data tools are
Questionnaire/interview schedule
Interview guide
Checklist
Compilation sheet/data extraction form
186
DEVELOPING DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
The process of developing data collection
tools has the following steps:
Review or formulate research questions or
research objectives:
To determine type of treatment given to
under-five children in public primary health
facilities
Identify the variables that are related to
research questions or objectives:
e.g. under-five treatment
187
DEVELOPING DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
steps cont….
Identify data required for each of the
research variable:
e.g. treatment given to under-five
Determine sources of data for each
variable: who or what will provide data
for each variable.
e.g., under-five treatment medical
record
188
DEVELOPING DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
steps cont….
Formulate specific and understandable
data collection questions or statements for
each variable and other background data
Data collection questions (or statement)
are questions that are used by researchers
to obtain data from data sources.
Example of data collection question:
“What treatments were given to under-five
children in public primary health
facilities?”
189
DEVELOPING DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
steps cont….
Compile the formulated data collection
question to form one or more than one
data collection tools:
e.g. questionnaire or interview guide
Edit the data collection tools
Request other professionals to review the
edited version of the data collection tool
190
DEVELOPING DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
Data collection questions or item statement
should have the following features:
They are relevant to the research question
of objective
They are general short
They are specific to variable
Understandable to majority of people,
especially research Students and data
collect
They have one idea: not double barrelled
191
A matrix for assist in developing data collection tools
Research Variable Source of Data Data collection
question or data collection question
objective method
To determine under-five under-five Document What treatments were

type of treatment treatment review given to under-five
treatment given medical children in public
to under-five record primary health facilities?
children in
public primary
health facilities

192
PRE-TESTING OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
Generally, pre-testing or conducting pilot is a
research technique that allows researcher to
identify potential problems in the proposed
study such as:
Reactions of Students to research procedures
Sampling techniques
Data collection methods and tools
Training of data collectors
Data analysis
Budget and work plan.
193
PRE-TESTING OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
Pre-testing of data collection tools is done
before the actual data collection and is done
to determine (Varkevisser et al, 2003):
Whether the tools you use allow you to
collect the information you need and
whether those tools are reliable
How much time is needed to administer
the interview guide/questionnaire, to
conduct observations or group interviews,
and/or to make measurement?
194
Whether there is any need to revise the
format or presentation of interview guides/
questionnaires, including whether:
The sequence of questions is logical.
The wording of the questions is clear.
Translations are accurate.
Space for answers is sufficient.
There is a need to pre-categorise some
answers or to change closed questions into
open-ended questions.
There is a need for additional instructions
for interviewers (e.g., guidelines for probing).
195
USING DATA COLLECTION
TOOLS TO COLLECT DATA
Once tools are pre-tested and improved,
they can be used to collect research data
Data collection tools can be effectively
used by adhering to the following guidelines:
Prepared adequate number of data
collection tools
Identify the study population
Select the required sample using
acceptable methods shown in the proposal
196
USING DATA COLLECTION
TOOLS TO COLLECT DATA
Select appropriate data collection method
for each data collection tool as described in
the proposal
Request informed consent as described in
proposal
Administer or use the data collection tool
as described in the proposal
Keep and store filled data collection tools
and unfilled data collection tools
197
KEY POINTS
Researcher need to understand the qualities
of good data collection tool
Researchers are required to develop valid
and reliable data collection tools
Data collection should be tested before data
collection process
Data collection should be used collect data
required to answer research questions and
meet research objectives
198
EVALUATION
199
MR.
DEVELOPING A DATA
ANALYSIS PLAN NASSORO
SAID
200
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Define data analysis and data analysis
plan
Explain data analysis methods/techniques
Outline elements of data analysis plan
Develop data analysis plan
201
DEFINITIONS OF DATA
ANALYSIS
Data analysis is a method or process of
applying graphical, statistical, quantitative or
qualitative techniques to a set of
observations or data in order to summarize it
or to find general patterns (Zedeck,
2014).
Data analysis plan is a plan for analysing a
set of collected data
202
COMMON DATA ANALYSIS
METHODS
Once data are collected using acceptable
methods and tools, they need to be
analyzed using suitable analysis methods
to generate meaningful information
The main objective of analyzing data is to
provide answers that will help in
answering research questions and meet
research objectives.
203
COMMON DATA ANALYSIS
METHODS
There are two broad categories of data

analysis methods commonly used in
research:
Quantitative data analyses
Qualitative data analyses
204
QUANTITATIVE DATA
ANALYSES
Before quantitative data are analysed, the

data need to be:
Checked for completeness and missing
values/data
Checked for accuracy and errors
Coded for analysis
205
QUANTITATIVE DATA
ANALYSES
Within the major category of quantitative

data analyses, there are two methods that
are commonly used to analyse data:
Descriptive data analyses
Inferential data analyses.
206
QUANTITATIVE DATA
ANALYSES
Quantitative analysis can be done using

two approaches(modes):
Computer software- assisted analyses
Manual analysis, not using a computer
or software.
207
QUANTITATIVE DATA
ANALYSES
Descriptive data analyses are data
analyses that focus on analysing a set of
collected data in order to obtain descriptive
statistics such as
frequencies
Mean
Median
Mode
standard deviation.
208
QUANTITATIVE DATA
ANALYSES
Inferential data analyses (statistical

significance tests) are group of statistical
techniques that help researchers to
determine associations, correlations or
causal relationships among two or more
variables in a research.
209
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSES
There are many ways of analysing qualitative
data, but the commonly used method is thematic
analysis framework (Gale et al., 2013; Pope,
Ziebland, & Mays, 2000).
Thematic analysis has the following steps:
1. Preparing and organizing data for analysis;
2. Determining how data analysis will be done;
3. Familiarizing with the general sense of the
data;
210
QUALITATIVE DATA
ANALYSES
4. Developing code and coding the data;
using code to develop description and
themes;
5. Relating and developing second layer
themes which are broader;
6. Summarizing and reporting findings
Qualitative analysis can also be
manually and by using computer software
such as N-Vivo software
211
ELEMENTS OF DATA
ANALYSIS PLAN
Data analysis plan is an important section
of a proposal
Data analysis plan provide guidance on
planned data analysis
The data analysis plan has the following
elements:
1. Research questions or objectives: this
element typically indicate the research
question or objectives that the research
need to answer or meet.
212
2. Variables: this element indicates all types
that are needed to describe the sample,
answer research questions and meet research
objectives
3. Proposed data analysis: this element of the
plan show type of data analysis and specific
tests that will be performed to generate
findings to answer research questions or
meet research objectives
213
4. Methods of presentation findings: this
element states how the findings will be
presented in order to answer the
research questions or meet research
objectives; the presentation can be done
in numerically, textually,
diagrammatically using tables, figure or
graphs.
214
DEVELOPING A DATA
ANALYSIS PLAN
The data analysis plan can be in three
forms:
Narrative form: described using
words/texts
Table form: presented in acceptable
table
Both in narrative and tabular in form:
described in text and presented in a table.
215
DEVELOPING A DATA
ANALYSIS PLAN
The steps for developing a data analysis
plan as follows:
1. Identify and write the research question
to be answered or research objective to
be address by the research:
e.g. to determine the proportion of
women of reproductive age using
modern planning methods in Village.
216
DEVELOPING A DATA
ANALYSIS PLAN
2. Identify and write the needed
variable/data to answer each research
question or meet the research objective;
For example the number of women in
reproductive age using modern family
planning methods and total number of
women in reproductive age included in a
research
217
3. Identify and write methods of data
analysis that will be performed to
answer each research question or meet
the research objective.
Example descriptive analysis
4. State how the findings will be presented
in the research report.
Example for data related to the above
variable above may presented
numerically (%) and textually.
218
FORMAT FOR DEVELOPING A
DATA ANALYSIS PLAN
Research Variables Proposed data Methods of
question or analysis presentation
objective findings
To determine the  Number of Descriptive Numerically (%)
proportion of women in analysis (% of and in text
women of reproductive age women of
using modern
reproductive age family planning reproductive age
using modern methods using modern
family planning (numerator) family planning
methods in  Total number of methods
Village women in
reproductive age
( denominator)

219
KEY POINTS
Data analysis is a basic element of
research methods
There are two main categories of data
analyses used by researchers
It is important include essential elements
of data analysis plan in a data analysis
section of a proposal
220
EVALUATION
221
Developing Research
Work Plan and Budget
222
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Define research work plan and budget
Explain importance of research work plan
and budget
Outline elements of a research work plan
and budget
Prepare a research work plan and budget
223
RESEARCH WORK PLAN
Research work plan (action plan) is a plan

(timetable or schedule) that describes time
and the activities that will be done to answer
research questions and achieve research
objectives.
224
RESEARCH BUDGET
Research budget is a financial plan

indicating the amount of financial resources
needed to conduct a research; it answers the
following questions: How much will it cost
to conduct a planned research?”
225
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
WORK PLAN
The purposes of developing a research work
plan are to:
Communicate to research staff and other
stakeholders the activities that need to be
done and when
Serve as a tool for coordination and
monitoring of research activities and related
outputs (deliverables)
 Assists in evaluating research activities in
an organization
226
IMPORTANCE OF BUDGET
The purposes of developing a research budget
are to:
Identify the resources needed to do
activities to achieve stated research
objectives
Coordinate various research activities
Monitor use of financial resources against
expenditure
Evaluate value of a research in an
organization
227
WORK PLAN
a) Research activities that will be done to
complete a research process for a give
topic
b) Resources for doing the research
activities
c) Time frame/duration for doing each
research activity
d) Responsible person for doing the
research activities
e) Output of each research activity
228
REFER TO THE SAMPLE
OF RESEARCH WORK
PLAN
229
ELEMENT OF RESEARCH
BUDGET
a) Research activities will be done to
complete a research process for a give
topic
b) Resources for doing the research activities
c) Unit of resources
d) Number of units of resources
e) Unit cost of each resources
f) Estimate cost for each resource
g) Total budget for a resource and activity
230
REFER TO THE SAMPLE
OF RESEARCH BUDGET
231
STEPS FOR PREPARING
RESEARCH WORK PLAN
1) Formulate appropriate research activities:
e.g. collect research data; prepare data
collection tools
2) Allocate a person who will be responsible
for each research activities: for the above
activities, responsible persons could be
data collectors and principal researcher;
and principal researcher respectively.
232
STEPS FOR PREPARING
RESEARCH WORK PLAN
3. State the timeframe or duration of each
research activity: For the above
activities, duration can be two weeks
and one week respectively.
4. State or propose research output for
each activity: The key outputs for the
above research activities as follow:
data collected and data collection tools
developed respectively.
233
THE STEPS FOR DEVELOPING A
RESEARCH BUDGET
1) State research activities to achieve
research objectives: e.g. collect data
2) Identify resources needed to do each
research objective: questionnaires
3) Select appropriate unit of each
resource needed to do research
activity: e.g. copy, day, litre, km, each
and other
234
4) State the number of unit of each resource
needed to do research activities: 100
5) State the unit cost/price for each resource
needed to do activities: e.g. 500/=
6) Calculate total cost for each research by
multiplying the number of units and unit
cost/price
7) Calculate the value of all resources needed
to do each activity: e.g. 100X 500=50,000,
which is the amount of money needed to get
100 copies of questionnaires at 500 per
copy.
235
KEY POINTS
Research work plan and budget are

important documents that assists in
management, coordination and evaluation
of research activities.
Researcher and students of research need
to develop competencies of developing
research work plan and budget using
acceptable formats.
236
EVALUATION
237
RESEARCH ETHICS IN
NURSING AND
MIDWIFERY
238
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define ethics and research ethics
Explain importance of adhering to research
ethics
Outline element of research ethics
Explain the process of obtaining ethical
approval and permission
239
CONCEPTS OF ETHICS
 Researchers are increasingly urged to

conduct research that adheres to good or
acceptable research principles and practices
stipulated in research ethics in any country.
 Ethics are the norms, rules or standards of
behaviours that guide moral choice and
about behaviours and our relationship with
others.
240
CONCEPTS OF ETHICS
 Research ethics are norms or standards

that provide guidelines on how
researchers should design, collect data,
analyse data and report findings in a
moral and responsible way.
 It is about conforming to a code or set of
research principles.
241
ETHICS
 Research ethics help and guide

researchers to prevent conducting
research that an unethically treat subjects
and prevent research misconduct in the
development, implementation, and
reporting of research.
242
ETHICS
 The research ethics are developed to
prevent the minimize or prevent occurrence
of following specific ethical concerns
related to research:
o Physical, psychological, socio-economic,
and legal harm to participants, Lack of
informed consent, Invasion of privacy,
Deception, and Fraud.
243
ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH
ETHICS
 Elements of research ethics are defined as
general guidelines that guide decision-
making and behaviours of researchers.
1. Harm to participants the potential to cause
harm through the research process and the
need to ensure physical, psychological, legal
well-being either of research participants,
the researcher, or others.
244
2. Dignity, requirement to respect the
dignity of research participants,
researchers or others and avoid causing
discomfort or anxiety.
3. Informed consent, need to ensure the
fully informed consent of research
participants
4. Privacy, need to protect privacy of
research subjects or avoid invasions of
privacy.
245
5. Confidentiality, requirement to ensure
confidentiality of research data whether
relating to individuals, groups or
organizations
6. Anonymity, protection of anonymity of
individuals or organizations.
7. Deception, potential for deception
through the research process, either
through lies or behaviour that is
misleading.
246
8. Affiliation, need to declare any
professional or personal affiliations that
may have influenced the research,
including conflicts of interest and
sponsorship, including information about
where funding for the research has come
from.
9. Honesty and transparency, need for
openness and honesty in communicating
information about the research to all
interested parties, including the need for
trust.
247
10.Reciprocity, idea that the research
should be of mutual benefit to researcher
and participants or that some form of
collaboration or active participation
should be involved.
11.Misrepresentation, need to avoid
misleading, misunderstanding,
misrepresenting or false reporting of
research findings.
248
To meet ethical principles the researcher
should adhered to
1. Follow stipulated ethical approval process
from authorities.
2. Get informed consent from every
participant involved.
3. Ensure confidentiality and anonymity
adhered
4. Protect research participants and researcher
from harm.
5. Reciprocity and dissemination of findings.
249
PROCESS OF OBTAINING
ETHICAL APPROVAL
 Before are research is conducted, researchers
and students need to seek and obtain ethical
clearance, approval, and permission from
relevant authorities and people:
o University/college Ethics and Research
Committee, The National Institute for Medical
Research (NIMR), Commission of Science and
Technology (COSTECH), Heads of institutions
or health facilities, and Research participants.
250
To obtain the research ethical approval and
permission, the following steps should be
followed:
a)Seek approval for research from relevant
authorities such university/college Ethics and
Research Committee by submitting the
research proposal
b)Seek permission to conduct study from relevant
authorities like local government director,
village leader, and head of health facilities.
251
c. Seek informed consent from each research
participant orally or using acceptable
research tools such as information sheet and
consent form.
252
KEY POINTS
 Research is ethics are important element of
research methods
 Researchers and students of research are
expected to follow acceptable principles of
research
 It is important to outline in the research
proposal and research report how research
principles will be or were followed during the
designing, conducting, and reporting research
findings.
253
EVALUATION
254
ANALYSIS OF
COLLECTED RESEARCH
DATA
255
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Explain methods of data analysis
 Prepare data for analysis
 Enter data using appropriate tools
 Analyze research data
 Interpret data
256
MAIN METHODS OF DATA
ANALYSIS
 Data analysis is a method or process of
applying graphical, statistical, quantitative or
qualitative techniques to a set of observations
or data in order to summarize it or to find
general patterns.
 It may also be defined as a process or
technique of turning raw research data into
meaningful and useful information or evidence
to answer research questions or meet research
objective. 257
DATA ANALYSIS CAN DONE
BY USING TWO BROAD
METHODS OR TECHNIQUES:
o Quantitative analysis, process of summarizing
and turning data into numeric findings using
statistical techniques
o Qualitative analysis, which lead to generation
of textual findings in forms of meanings,
summary statements, themes (categories),
patterns, relationship, explanations and
theories
258
DATA ANALYSIS PROCESSES
 The analysis quantitative data process
involves the following steps:
1)Prepare and organize data for analysis: this
stage involves assessing the completeness,
accuracy, errors, and omission including
(their reasons). Then develops codes and
code each response in data collection tools.
259
2. Determine how data analysis will be done:
This involves determining and selecting
specific approach of analysing data
whether using a statistical computer
programme or using manual approach.
3. Enter data into programme or other tools:
transfer from data collection tools or input
research data into programme or other
tools (e.g. master-sheets) for data analysis.
260
5. Compute/calculate descriptive statistics in line
the requirement of the research questions: This
steps involves determining the trends in the data
to a single variable or question on data
collection instrument using descriptive statistics
6. Compute/calculate inferential statistics to
answer research questions: This is about
determining the relationship or associations,
correlation among two or more variables using
inferential statistics.
261
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS PROCESS
INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING STEPS:
1)Prepare and organize data for analysis: Arrange

or organize data into folders and transcribe data
from audiotapes and field-notes.
2)Determine how data analysis will be done: This
involves determining and selecting specific
approach of analysing data whether using a
statistical computer or manual.
262
3. Explore the general sense of the data: to
obtain a general sense of the data,
memorizing ideas, thinking about the
organization of the data, and considering
whether you need more data.
4. Develop code and start coding the data:
Coding is the process of segmenting and
labelling text to form descriptions and broad
themes in the data.
263
5. Use code to describe themes: use code to
develop descriptions and themes
6. Related and develop second layer themes
which are broader
264
 After analysis of data, the researchers
should (Fallon,2016):
1. Present the characteristics of study
participants
2. State the key findings for each objective
or theme, variable
3. Support each finding using appropriate
statistics (descriptive or inferential),figure,
table, or quote from sources
265
INTERPRETING RESEARCH
FINDINGS
 Interpretation refers to the process of

searching for meaning, making inferences
and relations pertinent to the research
questions, drawing conclusions and
implications of findings within a research
and beyond the research conducted
(Kerlinger, 1973).
266
INTERPRETING RESEARCH
FINDINGS
 Kerlinger rightly states that the interpretation
process involves answering the following
questions for each statistics or findings:
1. What is its meaning? Specifically, what is its
meaning within the study?
2. What is its meaning broad meaning in light
of previous related research findings and
interpretation?
267
3. What is its meaning in light of available
theoretical prediction?
268
 Generally, interpretation of findings (done in
discussion section of research report)
should:
1. State the key finding for each objective,
theme, or variable
2. Compares or contrasts each finding with
appropriate previous studies, theory,
professional literature, practice, policy.
269
3. Explains the findings or state the
implication of findings to policy or
practices
4. Offers alternative explanations (justify
inconsistency)
5. States any limitation and their implication
to findings
6. Suggesting future research on the topic.
270
KEY POINTS
 Researcher need to analyse data using

acceptable data analysis.
 Researchers are required to follow data
analysis steps in analysing the research
data.
 Research findings need to be interpreted
appropriately by researchers.
271
EVALUATION
272
WRITING A
RESEARCH REPORT
273
KEY POINTS
At the end of this session a learner is expected

to be able to:
 Define a research report
 Outline parts of a research report
 Write a research report
 Explain how to disseminate research findings
274
DEFINITION A RESEARCH
REPORT
A report is defined as is a written statement
of the facts of a situation, project, study or
test, how these facts were ascertained, their
significance, the conclusions that have been
drawn from them, and the recommendations
being made.
275
DEFINITION A RESEARCH
REPORT
Research report (or research article) is a
report that describe the process and findings of
a research.
It is written once a research is completed
There are different forms of research reports,
including the following:
o Detailed research report, covering all issues
related to a research
o Research articles
276
PARTS OF A RESEARCH
REPORT
o Summary:
structured summarising introduction, research
methods, findings/results, and discussion
o Introduction:
covering background, summary of literature,
and rationale/significance/value of the study,
research question and objectives.
277
o Literature review:
this section presents theoretical literature and
empirical (research) literature; it indicates what is
known and not known a about the research topic.
o Research methods:
This part present research methods used by
researchers study design, place/setting,
variables, sampling technique, source of data,
data collection methods, tools, data analysis, and
ethical considerations
278
o Findings/results:
this part findings should be presented based
on specific research objectives as follows:
o Discussion:
this section discusses the findings of the
research and its implication
o Conclusions and recommendations:
this sections include conclusions and
recommendations
279
o Reference:
this section contains literature that informed
the reported research
o Appendices/attachments:
this sections can have data collection tools.
280
WRITING A RESEARCH
REPORT
Writing process
 Writing a research report follow normal
report writing process, which has the
following steps:
1. Planning for writing, which involves:
 Identifying your purpose
 Determining the scope of your writing
281
 Defining your reader( target audience)
 Specifying your content
 Developing an outline of a report
 Specifying the approach of writing
 Developing a timetable for writing
2. Drafting:
writing the first draft of your report into
sentences and paragraphs and using
acceptable outline or format.
282
o Revising:
evaluating your draft and then rewriting it by
adding, deleting, rewording, and rearranging
the content.
o Editing and prof-reading:
correcting grammar and punctuations,
eliminating typing or handwriting errors, and
structuring the document.
283
 A well-written research report has the
following features:
o Logical : contents are structured logically
o Clear : understandable by target audience
o Concise: has adequate length
o Complete: has all required contents
o Relevant: focuses on required content
o Structured: Based on agreed format
284
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR
WRITING THE MAIN PARTS OF A
RESEARCH REPORT
 As shown in step 3,the research report has
introduction and the introduction should be
written to cover the following essential
research issues:
o Background/introduction to research area
and topic,
285
o Summary of the literature indicating what is
known and research gap/gap in knowledge
(what is not known)
o Research question, objectives, or hypotheses
o Scope of the research: what is researched
and what is not researched.
o Rationale/significance/value of the study.
286
1. LITERATURE CHAPTER
OR SECTION
 The should be written to include the
following issues:
o Theoretical perspectives: theoretical
literature should indicate what is known
theoretically about concepts, theory,
process, practices, event or behaviours
researched.
287
1. LITERATURE CHAPTER
OR SECTION
o Empirical evidence/findings: empirical
literature should report on previous
findings, research methods used, setting
of the research, sampling issues, strengths
and limitations of previous study on the
topic.
288
2. THE RESEARCH METHODS
SECTION
 should be written using past tense to

cover the following minimum
methodological elements:
1. Study design,
2. Place/ research setting,
3. Study population and sample size
4. Sampling technique
289
5. Data collection elements such as
variables, source of data, data collection
methods and tools,
6. Data analysis methods
7. Elements of research ethic
290
FINDINGS/RESULTS CHAPTER
OR SECTION
 contains findings which are answers to
research questions or findings related to
research objectives.
 The chapter or section on findings should be
written to ensure that it answer the research
questions and meet research objectives.
291
 In writing the findings/results section, the
writer of the report should:
Describe first the characteristics of study
the research participants
State the key findings for each objective,
theme, or variable
Support each key finding for each objective
using appropriate statistics (descriptive or
inferential), figure, table, or quote from data
sources.
292
DISCUSSION CHAPTER OR
SECTION
 is a section that discusses and interprets
findings or results of a study and it may
contain the following elements:
Summary of findings for each research
question or objective
Interpretation of research findings
Limitations of a research
Conclusions
Recommendations and future research
293
 In writing the discussion chapter or section
of research report, the write should:
o State key finding for each objective, theme,
or variable
o Compare or contrast each finding with
appropriate previous studies, theory,
professional literature, practice, policy
o Explain the findings or state the implication
of findings to policy or practices
294
o Offer alternative explanations (justify
inconsistency)
o State any limitation and their implication to
findings
o State major conclusions for the entire
research
o Give recommendations, which may include
recommendations for practice, policy and
future research.
295
SUMMARY (ABSTRACT) SECTION
 is the first section of the report, but it written
last and does not contain new information. The
writers of the research report should:
o State summary of the introduction/background
o State research the main objective of the
research or state specific objectives or
questions
o Summarize research methods
o State main findings/results of the research
o State the main conclusion and recommendation
296
REFERENCE SECTION
 should be prepared and arranged using
acceptable referencing style like Harvard
Style, American Psychological Association
(APA) Style or Vancouver Style. The
reference section should include all
literature cited in the main body of the
research report.
297
APPENDICES/ATTACHMENTS
 should be prepared well and it may
include collection tools, research
approval letter and other supplementary
materials such figure or table.
 Learners of research and research writing
should note, learn, be guided by the
following quotes, which are drawn from
experienced academic writers:
298
o “Writing clearly and succinctly is even
more difficult” task need more practice.
o “Good writing is typically a process of
drafting and redrafting”.
o “Reading and revising are essential to
good writing”.
o “Rewriting is a very important factor in the
writing process”.
o “…writers know that they create meaning
through the messy business of writing and
rewriting”.
299
DISSEMINATING RESEARCH
FINDINGS
• Study findings or reports need to be
disseminated to stakeholders for further
actions
• Dissemination of research findings is an
active process of communicating research
findings to stakeholders, which can be
researcher, the nursing practitioners, nursing
managers and policy makers and the
consumer of nursing services.
300
Failure to communicate research findings is
considered a violation of ethics and a form of
scientific misconduct and lead to wasting,
subject time and data, and knowledge for
nursing practice is not advanced.
301
• Dissemination plan need to be developed
and should include the following contents:
o What information to disseminate
o How the information should be
disseminated?
o When information needs to be
disseminate?
o Where information should be
disseminate?
o Who should disseminate the information?
302
• Dissemination can be done using four
modes/ ways:
o Written mode
o Oral mode
o Visual mode
o Electronic mode
303
• Written materials for dissemination can be
in different formats such as:
o Journal articles
o Newspaper and magazine articles
o Text speeches or conference paper
o Brochures
o Newsletter
o Documents posted on website
304
KEY POINTS
 Writing a research report is a critical skill

and task for nurses
 Nurses and researchers are expected
write a good research report containing
all essential parts
 It is important to disseminate effectively
research findings to all key stakeholders
305
EVALUATION
306

NMT 06106 Fundamentals of Research

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

NMT 06106 Fundamentals of Research

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

NMT 06106 Fundamentals of Research

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FUNDAMENTALS OF MR.

At the end of this session a learner is

Helps to identify what actions should be

There should be more than one possible

Relevance: is the problem or issues

Applicability: can the finding be used to

3. Literature review: this element

5. Work plan and budget: these elements

 The process of research is conceptual

 Key steps of this phase are:

Phase 3: The Empirical Phase

 The steps at this phase are:

Phase 4: The Analytic Phase

Phase 5: The Disseminations Phase

3. What is not known about your problem

Two examples of stating the importance of

3. Summarise briefly what others

-use of modern family planning methods

Selection of sampling techniques is

Tarmac bias: Study areas are often

We use the confidence interval of 95% which

Data collection methods fall under two

3. Document reviewing: capturing

3. Checklists/rating scales/forms: these are

At the end of this session a learner is

Validity of data collection varies from

To determine under-five under-five Document What treatments were

At the end of this session a learner is

There are two broad categories of data

Before quantitative data are analysed, the

Within the major category of quantitative

Quantitative analysis can be done using

Inferential data analyses (statistical

Research work plan (action plan) is a plan

Research budget is a financial plan

Research work plan and budget are

 Researchers are increasingly urged to

 Research ethics are norms or standards

 Research ethics help and guide

1)Prepare and organize data for analysis: Arrange

 Interpretation refers to the process of

 Researcher need to analyse data using

At the end of this session a learner is expected

 should be written using past tense to

 Writing a research report is a critical skill

You might also like