Computer Organization

and Architecture

Chapter 4
Types of Computer Memory
Systems and their function
Computer Memory System Overview

 Computer memory is the storage space in

the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for
processing are stored.
 A memory is used to store data and
instructions.
 The memory is divided into large number
of small parts called cells. 
Types of the computer memories

Memory is primarily of three types:-

Cache Memory
Primary Memory/Main Memory
Secondary Memory
Cache Memory

 Cache memory is a very high speed

semiconductor memory which can speed
up the CPU.
 It acts as a buffer between the CPU and
the main memory. It is used to hold
those parts of data and program which
are most frequently used by the CPU.
 The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache
memory by the operating system, from
where the CPU can access them.
Cache Memory
 Characteristics of Computer Memory
Systems

 Location
 Capacity
 Unit of transfer
 Access method
 Performance
 Physical type
 Physical characteristics
 Organisation
Location

 Refers to whether memory is internal

and external to the computer.
 CPU
 Internal
 External
Capacity
 Word size
—The natural unit of organisation
 Number of words
—or Bytes
Unit of Transfer
 Internal
— Usually governed by data bus width
 External
—Usually a block which is much larger than a
word
 Addressable unit
—Smallest location which can be uniquely
addressed
—Word internally
—Cluster on M$ disks
Access Methods (1)
 Sequential
—Start at the beginning and read through in
order
—Access time depends on location of data and
previous location
—e.g. tape
 Direct
—Individual blocks have unique address
—Access is by jumping to vicinity plus sequential
search
—Access time depends on location and previous
location
—e.g. disk
Access Methods (2)
 Random
— Individual addresses identify locations exactly
— Access time is independent of location or
previous access
— e.g. RAM
 Associative
— Data is located by a comparison with contents
of a portion of the store
— Access time is independent of location or
previous access
— e.g. cache
Performance
Three performance parameters are used:
Access time (latency)
— This is the time it takes to perform a read or write operation
— Time between presenting the address and getting the valid
data
Memory Cycle time
— Time may be required for the memory to “recover” before
next access
— Cycle time is access + recovery
Transfer Rate
— Rate at which data can be moved. This is the rate at which
data can be transferred into or out of a memory unit.
Physical Types

 Semiconductor
—RAM
 Magnetic
—Disk & Tape
 Optical
—CD & DVD
 Others
—Bubble
—Hologram
Physical Characteristics

 Decay: information decays mean data loss

 Volatility: If a memory devices continues
hold data even if power is turned off.
 Erasable: erasable means permission to
erase
 Power consumption: how much power
consume?
Organisation
 Physical arrangement of bits into words
 Not always obvious
 e.g. interleaved
Memory Hierarchy
 Registers
—In CPU
 Internal or Main memory
—May include one or more levels of cache
—“RAM”
 External memory
—Backing store
Memory Hierarchy - Diagram
Hierarchy List
• Registers
• L1 Cache
• L2 Cache
• Main memory
• Disk cache
• Disk
• Optical
• Tape
Cache
 Small amount of fast memory
 Sits between normal main memory and
CPU
 May be located on CPU chip or module
Cache and Main Memory
Cache/Main Memory Structure
Cache operation – overview
 CPU requests contents of memory
location
 Check cache for this data
 If present, get from cache (fast)
 If not present, read required block from
main memory to cache
 Then deliver from cache to CPU
 Cache includes tags to identify which
block of main memory is in each cache
slot
Cache Design

 Addressing
 Size
 Mapping Function
 Replacement Algorithm
 Write Policy
 Block Size
 Number of Caches
Cache Addressing
 Where does cache sit?
— Between processor and virtual memory management
unit
— Between MMU and main memory
 Logical cache (virtual cache) stores data using
virtual addresses
— Processor accesses cache directly, not thorough physical
cache
— Cache access faster, before MMU address translation
— Virtual addresses use same address space for different
applications
 Physical cache stores data using main memory
physical addresses
Size does matter

 Cost
—More cache is expensive
 Speed
—More cache is faster (up to a point)
—Checking cache for data takes time
Typical Cache Organization
 Mapping Function

 The transformation of data from main memory to

cache is known as mapping process. There are
three types of mapping - Direct mapping, associative
mapping, set-associative mapping.
 Cache of 64kByte
 Cache block of 4 bytes
—i.e. cache is 16k (214) lines of 4 bytes
 16MBytes main memory
 24 bit address
—(224=16M)
Direct Mapping
 Each block of main memory maps to only
one cache line
—i.e. if a block is in cache, it must be in one
specific place
 Address is in two parts
 Least Significant w bits identify unique
word
 Most Significant s bits specify one memory
block
 The MSBs are split into a cache line field r
and a tag of s-r (most significant)
Direct Mapping Address Structure

Tag s-r Line or Slot r Word w

8 14 2

• 24 bit address
• 2 bit word identifier (4 byte block)
• 22 bit block identifier
— 8 bit tag (=22-14)
— 14 bit slot or line
• No two blocks in the same line have the same Tag field
• Check contents of cache by finding line and checking Tag
Associative Mapping
 A main memory block can load into any
line of cache
 Memory address is interpreted as tag and
word
 Tag uniquely identifies block of memory
 Every line’s tag is examined for a match
 Cache searching gets expensive
Write Policy
 Must not overwrite a cache block unless
main memory is up to date
 Multiple CPUs may have individual caches
 I/O may address main memory directly
Write through
 All writes go to main memory as well as
cache
 Multiple CPUs can monitor main memory
traffic to keep local (to CPU) cache up to
date
 Lots of traffic
 Slows down writes
 Remember bogus write through caches!
Write back
 Updates initially made in cache only
 Update bit for cache slot is set when
update occurs
 If block is to be replaced, write to main
memory only if update bit is set
 Other caches get out of sync
 I/O must access main memory through
cache
 N.B. 15% of memory references are
writes
Internal Memory
 Semiconductor Memory Types
Memory Type Category Erasure Write Mechanism Volatility

Random-access
Read-write memory Electrically, byte-level Electrically Volatile
memory (RAM)

Read-only
Masks
memory (ROM)
Read-only memory Not possible

Programmable
ROM (PROM)

Erasable PROM
UV light, chip-level
(EPROM) Nonvolatile

Electrically

Electrically Erasable Read-mostly memory

Electrically, byte-level
PROM (EEPROM)

Flash memory Electrically, block-level

Semiconductor Memory
 RAM
—Misnamed as all semiconductor memory is
random access
—Read/Write
—Volatile
—Temporary storage
—Static or dynamic
Memory Cell Operation
Dynamic RAM
 Bits stored as charge in capacitors
 Charges leak
 Need refreshing even when powered
 Simpler construction
 Smaller per bit
 Less expensive
 Need refresh circuits
 Slower
 Main memory
 Essentially analogue
—Level of charge determines value
DRAM Operation
 Address line active when bit read or written
— Transistor switch closed (current flows)
 Write
— Voltage to bit line
– High for 1 low for 0
— Then signal address line
– Transfers charge to capacitor
 Read
— Address line selected
– transistor turns on
— Charge from capacitor fed via bit line to sense amplifier
– Compares with reference value to determine 0 or 1
— Capacitor charge must be restored
Static RAM
 Bits stored as on/off switches
 No charges to leak
 No refreshing needed when powered
 More complex construction
 Larger per bit
 More expensive
 Does not need refresh circuits
 Faster
 Cache
 Digital
—Uses flip-flops
SRAM v DRAM
 Both volatile
—Power needed to preserve data
 Dynamic cell
—Simpler to build, smaller
—More dense
—Less expensive
—Needs refresh
—Larger memory units
 Static
—Faster
—Cache
Read Only Memory (ROM)
 Permanent storage
—Nonvolatile
 Microprogramming (see later)
 Library subroutines
 Systems programs (BIOS)
 Function tables
Types of ROM
 Written during manufacture
—Very expensive for small runs
 Programmable (once)
—PROM
—Needs special equipment to program
 Read “mostly”
—Erasable Programmable (EPROM)
– Erased by UV
—Electrically Erasable (EEPROM)
– Takes much longer to write than read
—Flash memory
– Erase whole memory electrically
Refreshing
 Refresh circuit included on chip
 Disable chip
 Count through rows
 Read & Write back
 Takes time
 Slows down apparent performance
Error Correction
 Hard Failure
—Permanent defect
 Soft Error
—Random, non-destructive
—No permanent damage to memory
 Detected using Hamming error correcting
code
External Memory
Types of External Memory
 Magnetic Disk
—RAID
—Removable
 Optical
—CD-ROM
—CD-Recordable (CD-R)
—CD-R/W
—DVD
 Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Disk
 Disk substrate coated with magnetizable
material (iron oxide…rust)
 Substrate used to be aluminium
 Now glass
—Improved surface uniformity
– Increases reliability
—Reduction in surface defects
– Reduced read/write errors
—Lower flight heights (See later)
—Better stiffness
—Better shock/damage resistance
Read and Write Mechanisms
 Recording & retrieval via conductive coil called a head
 May be single read/write head or separate ones
 During read/write, head is stationary, platter rotates
 Write
— Current through coil produces magnetic field
— Pulses sent to head
— Magnetic pattern recorded on surface below
 Read (traditional)
— Magnetic field moving relative to coil produces current
— Coil is the same for read and write
 Read (contemporary)
— Separate read head, close to write head
— Partially shielded magneto resistive (MR) sensor
— Electrical resistance depends on direction of magnetic field
— High frequency operation
– Higher storage density and speed
Inductive Write MR Read
Data Organization and Formatting
 Concentric rings or tracks
—Gaps between tracks
—Reduce gap to increase capacity
—Same number of bits per track (variable
packing density)
—Constant angular velocity
 Tracks divided into sectors
 Minimum block size is one sector
 May have more than one sector per block
Disk Data Layout
Disk Velocity
 Bit near centre of rotating disk passes fixed point
slower than bit on outside of disk
 Increase spacing between bits in different tracks
 Rotate disk at constant angular velocity (CAV)
— Gives pie shaped sectors and concentric tracks
— Individual tracks and sectors addressable
— Move head to given track and wait for given sector
— Waste of space on outer tracks
– Lower data density
 Can use zones to increase capacity
— Each zone has fixed bits per track
— More complex circuitry
Disk Layout Methods Diagram
Finding Sectors
 Must be able to identify start of track and
sector
 Format disk
—Additional information not available to user
—Marks tracks and sectors
Characteristics
 Fixed (rare) or movable head
 Removable or fixed
 Single or double (usually) sided
 Single or multiple platter
 Head mechanism
—Contact (Floppy)
—Fixed gap
—Flying (Winchester)
Fixed/Movable Head Disk
 Fixed head
—One read write head per track
—Heads mounted on fixed ridged arm
 Movable head
—One read write head per side
—Mounted on a movable arm
Removable or Not
 Removable disk
—Can be removed from drive and replaced with
another disk
—Provides unlimited storage capacity
—Easy data transfer between systems
 Non-removable disk
—Permanently mounted in the drive
Multiple Platter
 One head per side
 Heads are joined and aligned
 Aligned tracks on each platter form
cylinders
 Data is striped by cylinder
—reduces head movement
—Increases speed (transfer rate)
Multiple Platters
Tracks and Cylinders
Floppy Disk
 8”, 5.25”, 3.5”
 Small capacity
—Up to 1.44Mbyte (2.88M never popular)
 Slow
 Universal
 Cheap
 Obsolete?
Speed
 Seek time
—Moving head to correct track
 (Rotational) latency
—Waiting for data to rotate under head
 Access time = Seek + Latency
 Transfer rate
Timing of Disk I/O Transfer
RAID
 Redundant Array of Independent Disks
 Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks
 6 levels in common use
 Not a hierarchy
 Set of physical disks viewed as single
logical drive by O/S
 Data distributed across physical drives
 Can use redundant capacity to store parity
information
RAID 0
 No redundancy
 Data striped across all disks
 Round Robin striping
 Increase speed
—Multiple data requests probably not on same
disk
—Disks seek in parallel
—A set of data is likely to be striped across
multiple disks
RAID 1
 Mirrored Disks
 Data is striped across disks
 2 copies of each stripe on separate disks
 Read from either
 Write to both
 Recovery is simple
—Swap faulty disk & re-mirror
—No down time
 Expensive
RAID 2
 Disks are synchronized
 Very small stripes
—Often single byte/word
 Error correction calculated across
corresponding bits on disks
 Multiple parity disks store Hamming code
error correction in corresponding positions
 Lots of redundancy
—Expensive
—Not used
RAID 3
 Similar to RAID 2
 Only one redundant disk, no matter how
large the array
 Simple parity bit for each set of
corresponding bits
 Data on failed drive can be reconstructed
from surviving data and parity info
 Very high transfer rates
RAID 4
 Each disk operates independently
 Good for high I/O request rate
 Large stripes
 Bit by bit parity calculated across stripes
on each disk
 Parity stored on parity disk
RAID 5
 Like RAID 4
 Parity striped across all disks
 Round robin allocation for parity stripe
 Avoids RAID 4 bottleneck at parity disk
 Commonly used in network servers
 N.B. DOES NOT MEAN 5 DISKS!!!!!
RAID 6
 Two parity calculations
 Stored in separate blocks on different
disks
 User requirement of N disks needs N+2
 High data availability
—Three disks need to fail for data loss
—Significant write penalty
RAID 0, 1, 2
RAID 3 & 4
RAID 5 & 6
Data Mapping For RAID 0
Optical Storage CD-ROM
 Originally for audio
 650Mbytes giving over 70 minutes audio
 Polycarbonate coated with highly
reflective coat, usually aluminium
 Data stored as pits
 Read by reflecting laser
 Constant packing density
 Constant linear velocity
CD Operation
CD-ROM Drive Speeds
 Audio is single speed
—Constant linier velocity
—1.2 ms-1
—Track (spiral) is 5.27km long
—Gives 4391 seconds = 73.2 minutes
 Other speeds are quoted as multiples
 e.g. 24x
 Quoted figure is maximum drive can
achieve
CD-ROM Format

 Mode 0=blank data field

 Mode 1=2048 byte data+error correction
 Mode 2=2336 byte data
Random Access on CD-ROM
 Difficult
 Move head to rough position
 Set correct speed
 Read address
 Adjust to required location
 (Yawn!)
CD-ROM for & against
 Large capacity (?)
 Easy to mass produce
 Removable
 Robust
 Expensive for small runs
 Slow
 Read only
Other Optical Storage
 CD-Recordable (CD-R)
—WORM
—Now affordable
—Compatible with CD-ROM drives
 CD-RW
—Erasable
—Getting cheaper
—Mostly CD-ROM drive compatible
—Phase change
– Material has two different reflectivities in different
phase states
DVD - what’s in a name?
 Digital Video Disk
—Used to indicate a player for movies
– Only plays video disks
 Digital Versatile Disk
—Used to indicate a computer drive
– Will read computer disks and play video disks
 Dogs Veritable Dinner
 Officially - nothing!!!
DVD - technology
 Multi-layer
 Very high capacity (4.7G per layer)
 Full length movie on single disk
—Using MPEG compression
 Finally standardized (honest!)
 Movies carry regional coding
 Players only play correct region films
 Can be “fixed”
DVD – Writable
 Loads of trouble with standards
 First generation DVD drives may not read
first generation DVD-W disks
 First generation DVD drives may not read
CD-RW disks
 Wait for it to settle down before buying!
CD and DVD
High Definition Optical Disks
 Designed for high definition videos
 Much higher capacity than DVD
—Shorter wavelength laser
– Blue-violet range
—Smaller pits
 HD-DVD
—15GB single side single layer
 Blue-ray
—Data layer closer to laser
– Tighter focus, less distortion, smaller pits
—25GB on single layer
—Available read only (BD-ROM), Recordable
once (BR-R) and re-recordable (BR-RE)
Optical Memory Characteristics
Magnetic Tape
 Serial access
 Slow
 Very cheap
 Backup and archive
 Linear Tape-Open (LTO) Tape Drives
—Developed late 1990s
—Open source alternative to proprietary tape
systems
End