FOLDING AND
FAULTING
T. Brown
OBJECTIVES
Define: folding
Identify at least 6 types of folds
Explain how plate movements result
in folding of crustal rocks
Locate countries with features of fold
mountains
CONCEPTS
Folding–the process where two plates collide
with each other causing layer of rocks to
buckle and form folds
Syncline–formed when rocks are folded
downwards
Anticline –formed where rocks are folded
upwards
Axis- the central line of a fold
Axial Plane-this is the plane that bisects the
upper and lower angle between the limbs of a
fold
Folding occurs at a convergent plate margin
where two plates are compressed together.
Where there is powerful and extensive
folding, complex patterns are formed. The
high points of a fold are the anticline and the
low points are the syncline.
TYPES OF FOLDS (STAGES IN FOLDING)
Simple Fold
Rocky Mountains in Western Canada and the
United States
Asymmetrical fold- In this type of
fold on limb is steeper than the
other
Overfold- This occurs when folding rock
becomes bent or warped. The Northern
Range in Trinidad have been over folded.
Recumbent fold – This type of fold is so
compressed that it is no longer vertical.
There is a large extent of overlapping to the
point where it may form an S.
Overthrust fold- This occurs when
compression causes rocks to be forced over
another
FOLD MOUNTAINS IN THE
CARIBBEAN
Folding in the Caribbean has created two
main lines of Fold Mountains from the
convergence of plates millions of years ago.
The north belt of the Greater Antilles –The
Blue Mountains, Jamaica (2,728 m), to the
Cordillera Central of Hispaniola.
The south belt of the Northern Range in
Trinidad which rises to 940 m.
OBJECTIVES
Define: earthquake, seismic wave, focus,
epicentre, hypocentre
Identify the plate boundaries where
earthquakes occur
Explain the causes of earthquakes
Locate major earthquake zones in the
Caribbean and the world
CONCEPTS
Earthquake–A vibration or tremor (shaking)
that results from a sudden movement within
the earth’s crust along plate margins
Seismic Waves– the waves of energy produced
by an earthquake
Focus/Hypocentre- The place in the earth
where the stress is released
Epicentre- The place on the earth above the
focus
Mercalli Scale- The scale used to measure the
strength of the earthquake
The zone along which the sudden release of
energy or movement occurs is called a fault
plane. Earthquake may occur along any
plate margin, on land or under the ocean.
Earthquakes are caused by:
1. Movement along faults
The movement of plates create tension and
pressure in the rocks causing it to break or
fracture and shift along the fault.
There many types of faults. The major ones
include:
Normal fault- rocks are pulled apart as the
earth is stretched
Reverse fault- rocks are pushed together as
the earth is compressed
Transform fault (strike slip)- two masses of
rocks are pushed pass each other
Overthrust fault- compression causes older
rocks to override younger one
NORMAL FAULT
REVERSE FAULT
STRIKE SLIP/ TRANSFORM
FAULT
OVERTHRUST FAULT
FEATURES PRODUCED BY
FAULTS
When a block is bounded by normal
faults drops down (as described
above), a graben is created. If the
bounded block is uplifted, it
becomes a fault-block mountain
range and is called a horst.
OTHER CAUSES OF
EARTHQUAKE
Movement of magma (volcanoes)
Volcanic eruptions (activity)
PACIFIC RING OF FIRE
The Ring of Fire is a string of volcanoes and
sites of seismic activity, or earthquakes,
around the edges of the Pacific Ocean.
Roughly 90% of all earthquakes occur along
the Ring of Fire, and the ring is dotted with
75% of all active volcanoes on Earth.
Below is a list of problems that face the
authorities after the earthquake. Which four
do you consider to be the most urgent? Give
reasons for your choice.
i. Provide new homes for people
ii. Search for missing people
iii. Rescue stranded people
iv. Evacuate people in danger
v. Supply food
vi. Supply drinking water
CSEC Questions
1) a) Define the term earthquake. (2 marks)
b) Describe two ways by which earthquakes may
occur. (4 marks)
c) Give an example of earthquake occurrence in
the Caribbean and
one outside of the Caribbean. (2 marks)
2) Why are Caribbean islands particularly
vulnerable to damage by
tsunamis? (4 marks)
3) Explain why earthquake damage is often
worst in modern
industrial cities than in traditional village
communities. (6 marks)
Answers to CSEC Questions
Question 1:
a) Define the term earthquake. (2 marks)
b) Describe two ways by which earthquakes may occur. (4
marks)
c) Give an example of earthquake occurrence in the Caribbean
and one outside of the Caribbean. (2 marks)
Answer to Question 1:
a) An earthquake is the shaking, trembling or vibration caused
by
a sudden movement within the Earth’s crust.
b) Movement along faults can trigger an earthquake. Movement
along a fault causes pressure to build up, when this pressure is
released earthquakes occur. When volcanic eruptions are
explosive they can trigger vibrations within the crust.
c) Haiti 2010, Chile 2010
Question 3: Explain why earthquake damage is often worst in
modern industrial cities than in traditional village
communities. (6marks)
Answer to Question 3:
Industrial cities have larger populations living in concrete
structures
which may collapse depending on the quality of buildings.
Traditional
villages have smaller populations living in buildings made from
materials such as wood that might cause less damage. Cities
also have
many poles, bridges and other structures which may collapse
and
cause damage. Traditional villages may not have any of these
structures and so damage would be less.
Student
Question 2: Why are Caribbean islands
particularly vulnerable to damage by
tsunamis?
Answer to Question 2:
Caribbean islands are small and some are
relatively flat which would
make them vulnerable to damage by
tsunamis. Furthermore in many
islands the highest concentration of
population is found in coastal
areas.
