Thermodynamics 1
(Basic Principles, Concepts, and
Definitions)
The name thermodynamics which stems from the Greek
words therme (heat) and dynamis (power) is most
descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power.
However, today the same name is broadly interpreted to
include all aspects of energy and energy transformations,
including power generation, refrigeration, and
relationships among the properties of matter.
Thermodynamics is that branch of the physical
sciences which treats of various phenomena of energy
and the related properties of matter, especially of the
laws of transformation of heat into other forms of
energy and vice versa.
The SI is a simple and logical system based on a decimal
relationship between the various units, and it is being used
for scientific and engineering work in most of the
industrialized nations, including England.
The English system, however, has no apparent systematic
numerical base, and various units in this system are related
to each other rather arbitrarily (12 in = 1 ft, 1 mile = 5280
ft, 4 qt = gal, etc.), which makes it confusing and difficult
to learn.
Poundal is a unit of force in the foot-pound-second system
of measurement, equal to the force required to accelerate a
standard one-pound mass 1 ft/sec2.
Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to
gravity is 30.5 ft/sec2 are as follows: m1 is 500 grams of
mass; m2 weighs 800 grams; m3 weighs 15 poundals; m4
weighs 3 lb; and m5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is the total
mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in lb, and (c) in slugs?
𝑓𝑡 12 𝑖𝑛 . 2.54 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
g = ቀ30.5 2 ቁቀ ቁቀ ቁ = 929.64
𝑠𝑒𝑐 1 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑖𝑛 . 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
(a)
m1 = 500 gm
𝐹𝑔2 = 800 gf
𝑔 𝑚 −𝑐𝑚
൫800 𝑔 𝑓 ൯ቆ980.66 ቇ
𝐹𝑔 2 𝑘 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 −𝑔 𝑓
∴ m2 = = 𝑐𝑚 = 843.91 gm
𝑔 929.64
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝐹𝑔3 = 15 poundals
𝑙𝑏 𝑚 −𝑓𝑡
𝐹𝑔 3 𝑘 ሺ15 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙𝑠 ሻ൬
1 2 ൰ 𝑔𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐 −𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙
∴ m3 = = 𝑓𝑡 ቀ453.6 ቁ
𝑔 30.5 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
= 223.08 gm
𝑙𝑏 𝑚 −𝑓𝑡
൫3 𝑙𝑏 𝑓 ൯ቆ32.174 ቇ
𝐹𝑔 4 𝑘 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 −𝑙𝑏 𝑓 𝑔𝑚
𝐹𝑔4 = 3 lbf ∴ m4 = = 𝑓𝑡 ቀ453.6 ቁ
𝑔 30.5 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
= 1435.49 gm
𝑙𝑏 𝑚 𝑔𝑚
m5 = 0.10 slug ቀ32.174 ቁቀ453.6 ቁ = 1459.41 gm
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 1 𝑙𝑏 𝑚
∴ Total mass = m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + m5
= 500 + 843.91 + 223.08 + 1435.49 + 1459.41
= 4461.89 𝑔𝑚
1 𝑙𝑏 𝑚
(b) In lbm, the total mass = (4461.89 gm)ቀ ቁ = 9.84 𝑙𝑏𝑚
453.6 𝑔𝑚
1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔
(c) In slugs, the total mass = (9.84 lbm)ቀ ቁ
32.174 𝑙𝑏 𝑚
= 0.306 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
The gravitational acceleration at equatorial sea level is
g = 32.088 ft/sec2 and its variation is -0.003 ft/sec2 per
1000 ft ascent. Find the height (in miles) above this
point for which (a) the gravity acceleration becomes
30.504 ft/sec2, (b) the weight of a given man is
decreased by 5 %. (c) What is the weight of a 180-lbm
man atop the 29,131-ft Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to
this point?
Let a = gravitational acceleration at any point above
equatorial sea level
(a) Change in acceleration = a – g = 30.504 – 32.088
= - 1.584 ft/sec2 or fps2
−1.584 𝑓𝑝 𝑠 2
Height, h = −0.003 𝑓𝑝 𝑠 2
= 528,000 ft or 100 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
1000 𝑓𝑡
(N.B. 1 mile = 5280 ft)
Let Fg = weight of the man at sea level
F = weight of the man (at a point above sea level)
decreased by 5 %
𝑚 𝐹𝑔 𝐹 𝐹𝑔 0.95𝐹𝑔
∴ F = 0.95Fg ቂ = = ቃ =
𝑘 𝑔 𝑎 𝑔 𝑎
∴ a = 0.95g
a = (0.95)(32.088 fps2) = 30.484 fps2
∴ change in acceleration = a – g = 30.484 – 32.088
= - 1.604 fps2
−1.604 𝑓𝑝 𝑠 2
Height, h = −0.003 𝑓𝑝 𝑠 2
= 534,670 ft or
1000 𝑓𝑡
101.3 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 (N.B. 1 mile = 5280 ft)
(c)
g = 32.088 fps2, m = 180 lbm
a = g + (change in acceleration) = 32.088 fps2 +
−0.003 𝑓𝑝 𝑠 2
(29, 131 ft)ቀ ቁ = 32.001 fps2 or ft/sec2
1000 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡
𝑚𝑎 ሺ180 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ሻቀ32.001 ቁ
𝑠𝑒 𝑐 2
∴ F = = 𝑙𝑏 𝑚 −𝑓𝑡 = 179.03 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑘 32.174
𝑠𝑒 𝑐 2 −𝑙𝑏 𝑓
Illustrative Examples
The fuel tank of a large truck measures 1.2 m x 0.9 m x 0.6
m. How many liters of fuel are contained in the tank when
it is full? If it takes 12 min. to fill the tank at a garage fuel
pump, what is the mass flow rate of fuel from the pump?
Assume the relative density of the fuel is 0.8.
A weather research instrument is suspended below a
helium-filled balloon, which is a 3.8-m diameter sphere. If
the specific volume of helium is 5.6 m3/kg, what is the
weight of helium in the balloon? Explain briefly why the
balloon rises in the atmosphere.
1. A horizontal pipe (100 mm diameter and 7 m long)
transports sea water. Find the weight of the fluid in the
pipe. The specific gravity of sea water is 1.03.
2. A rigid vessel having a volume of 1.5 m3 initially holds
5 kg of air under high pressure. If 10 % of the mass of
air leaks out, what is the final density and specific
volume of the air in the vessel?
3. Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1500 kg/m3, ρ2
= 500 kg/m3) are poured together into a 100-li tank,
filling it. If the resulting density of the mixture is 800
kg/m3, find the respective quantities (masses) of
liquids used. Also, find the weight of the mixture; local
g = 9.675 m/sec2.
