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1. Second-order systems
The impulse response of a second-order CT system has the form

where the parameters σ, ωd, and φ are related to the parameters

of the characteristic polynomial for the system: s2 + Bs + C.
a. Determine expressions for σ and ωd (not φ) in terms of B and C.

Express the impulse response in terms of complex

exponentials:

The impulse response is a weighted sum of

modes of the form
where s0 and The characteristic polynomial has the form

Thus B = 2σ and C = σ2 + Solving, we find that

b. Determine

– the time required for the envelope

of h(t) to diminish by a factor of e,
– the period of the oscillations in h(t), and
– the number of periods of oscillation before h(t)
diminishes by a factor of e. Express your results as
functions of B and C only.

The time to decay by a factor of e is

The period is

The number of periods before diminishing a factor

of e is

Notice that this last answer is equivalent to

Q/π where Q =

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c. Estimate the parameters in part b for a CT system with the
following poles:

From the plot σ = 10 and ωd = 100.

The time to decay by a factor of e is 0.1

The period is

The number of cycles before decaying by e is

The unit-sample response of a second-order DT system has

the form

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where the parameters r0, Ω0, and Φ are related to the parameters
of the characteristic polynomial for the system:

d. Determine expressions for r0 and Ω0 (not Φ) in terms of D

and E.
Express the unit-sample response in terms of complex
exponentials:

The poles have the form z = r0e jΩ0 and z = r0e−jΩ0 . The
characteristic equation is z2 + Dz +E = (z −r0e jΩ0 )(z
−r0e−jΩ0 ) = z2 −2r0 cos Ω0 +r2 0. Thus D = −2r0 cos Ω0
and E = r2 0. Solving, we find that

e. Determine

- the length of time required for the envelope

to diminish by a factor of
– the period of the oscillations in h[n], and

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- the number of periods of oscillation in h[n] before it
diminishes by a factor of e. Express your results as functions
of D and E only.

The time to diminish by a factor of eTaking

is the log of both
sides yields n ln r0 = −1 so that the time is

The period is 2π/Ω0 which is

The number of periods before the response

diminishes by e is

f. Estimate the parameters in part e for a DT system with the

following poles:

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 From the plot Ω0 = tan−1

The time to decay by a factor of e is

The number of cycles before decaying by e is

2. Matches

The following plots show pole-zero diagrams, impulse

responses, Bode magnitude plots, and Bode angle plots for six
causal CT LTI systems. Determine which corresponds to which
and fill in the following table.

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Pole-zero diagram 1 has a single pole at zero. The impulse
response of a system with a single pole at zero is a unit step
function (3). We evaluate the frequency response by considering
frequencies along the jω axis. As we move away from the pole
at the origin the log-magnitude decays linearly (5). The phase is
constant since the angle between the pole and any point along
positive side of the jω axis remains constant at π/2. The angle of
the frequency response is therefore −π/2 (4).

Pole-zero diagram 4 has a single pole at at s = −1. The impulse

response has the form estu(t) = e−t u(t) (2). As we move along
the jω axis, we move away from the pole at the origin, and the
log-magnitude will eventually decay linearly. Because the pole
is not exactly at the origin, this decay is not significant until ω =
1 (6). The phase starts at 0, and eventually moves to −π/2. Note
that as we move farther up the jω axis, this system behaves like
the system of diagram 1 (2)

Pole-zero diagram 3 adds a zero at the origin. A zero at the

origin corresponds to taking the derivative, so we take the
impulse response of pole-zero diagram 4 (2) and take its
derivative (4). When ω is small, the zero is dominant. As we
move away from ω = 0, the effect of the zero diminishes and the
log-magnitude increases linearly. For sufficiently large ω we are
far enough that the zero and pole appear to cancel each other,
and the magnitude becomes a constant (3). A zero at the origin
means that we take the phase response of pole-zero diagram 4
(2) and add π/2 to it (6).

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Pole-zero diagram 2 contains complex
conjugate poles

The impulse response has the form

which is response (1). The magnitude response will

eventually decay twice as fast as that of pole-zero diagram 4
(6). Since there are two poles, there will be a bump at
around ω = 1 (2). At the origin, the angular contributions of
the two poles cancel each other out, hence the angle is zero.
As we move up the jω axis, the angles add up to −π, with
each pole contributing −π/2 (3).
Pole-zero diagram 6 adds a zero at the origin, meaning that
we take the derivative of the impulse response of pole-zero
diagram 2 (1). The derivative ends up being the
combination of a decaying cos(t) term minus a decaying
sin(t) term (5). The zero at the origin adds a linearly
increasing component to the magnitude function (4). It also
adds π/2 to the phase response everywhere (5).
Pole-zero diagram 5 has complex conjugate poles and
zeros at the same frequency ω. The system function has the
form

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This denominator has the same form as pole-zero diagrams 2 and
6, but has an additional power of s (corresponding to
differentiation) in the numerator. This leads to a response of the
form in (6). The symmetry of the poles and zeros means they
cancel each other’s effect on magnitude (1). The phase response at
ω = 0 is zero, as the contributions cancel each other out. As we
move past ω = 1 where the conjugates are located, the phase moves
in the negative direction faster, but eventually settles back at 0 as
we move farther and the contributions again cancel each other out
(1)

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 Engineering Design Problems

3. Desired oscillations

The following feedback circuit was the basis of Hewlett and

Packard’s founding patent.

a. With R = 1 kΩ and C = 1µF, sketch the pole locations as

the gain K varies from 0 to ∞, showing the scale for the real
and imaginary axes. Find the K for which the system is
barely stable and label your sketch with that information.
What is the system’s oscillation period for this K?

The closed-loop gain is

The denominator is zero if

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The point of marginal stability is where the root locus
crosses the jω axis. This occurs when the real part of −1 +

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 so that K = 8. The frequency of oscillation is ω = so the
period of oscillation is

For RC = 1 ms (as given), the period T

= 3.63 ms.

b. How do your results change if R is increased to 10 kΩ?

Increasing R by a factor of 10 increases the period T by a

factor of 10, to T = 36.3 ms. It has no effect of the critcal
value of K = 8.

4. Robotic steering

Design a steering controller for a car that is moving forward

with constant velocity V.

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You can control the steering-wheel angle w(t), which causes
the angle θ(t) of the car to change according to

where d is a constant with dimensions of length. As the car

moves, the transverse position p(t) of the car changes
according to

Consider three control schemes:

a. w(t) = Ke(t)

b. w(t) = Kve˙(t)

c. w(t) = Ke(t) + Kve˙(t)

where e(t) represents the difference between the desired

transverse position x(t) = 0 and the current transverse
position p(t). Describe the behaviors that result for each
control scheme when the car starts with a non-zero angle
(θ(0) = θ0 and p(0) = 0). Determine the most acceptable
value(s) of K and/or Kv for each control scheme or explain
why none are acceptable.

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Part a. This system can be represented by the following block
diagram:

We are given a set of initial conditions — p(0) = 0 and θ(0) =

θ0 — and we are asked to characterize the response p(t). Initial
conditions are easy to take into account when a system is
described by differential equations. However, feedback is
easiest to analyze for systems expressed as operators or
(equivalently) Laplace transforms. Therefore we first calculate
the closed-loop system function,

We
which has two poles: ±jω0 where ω0 = can
V convert the system
function
to a differential equation:

and then find the solution when x(t) = 0,

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so that p(t) = C sin ω0t since p(0) = 0.

From p(t) we can calculate θ(t) = ˙p(t)/V = C/V ω0 cos ω0t. From
the initial condition θ(0) = θ0, it follows that C = V θ0/ω0 and

for t > 0.

If K is small, then the oscillations are slow, but they have a large
amplitude. If K is large, then the oscillations are fast (and
therefore uncomfortable for passengers), but the amplitude is
small. While none of these behaviors are desireable, it would
probably be best to increase K so that the amplitude of the
oscillation is small enough so that the car stays in its lane.

Part b. The system can be represented by the following block

diagram:

The closed-loop system function is

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 The closed-loop poles are at s = 0 and s =
Since p(0) = 0, the form of p(t) is given by

for t > 0. We can find C by relating C to the initial value of θ(t) =

˙p(t)/V . Since θ(0) = θ0, p˙(0) = V θ0. Therefore C =

for t > 0 as shown below.

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We would like to make Kv large because large Kv leads to fast
convergence. Large values of Kv also lead to smaller steady-state
errors in p(t).

There are no oscillations in p(t) with the velocity sensor, which is

an advantage over results with the position sensor in part a.
However, there is now a steady-state error in p(t), which is worse.
Fortunately the steady-state error can be made small with large
Kv.
Part c. The system can be represented by the
following block diagram:

The closed-loop system function is

This second-order system has a resonant and a quality factor

frequency ω0 =

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There is an enormous variety of acceptable solutions to this
problem, since there are many values of K and Kv that can
work. Here, we focus on one line of reasoning based on our
normalization of second-order system in terms of Q and ω0.

To avoid excessive oscillations, we would like Q to be small.

Try Q = 1. Then

Then p(t) has the form

As before, we can use the intial condition of θ(0) = θ0 to

determine C. In general, θ(t) = ˙p(t)/V so p˙(0) = θ0V = C √
3ω0/2. Therefore

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Increasing Q would reduce the overshoot but slow the response.
We could compensate for the slowing of the response by
increasing ω0.

Performance can be adjusted to be better than either part a or part

b. By adjusting Q and ω0 we can get convergence of p(t) to zero
with minimum oscillation.

Although the steady-state value of the error is zero and the

oscillation is minimized, there is still a transient behavior, which
could momentarily move the car into the other lane

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