CHAPTER 8

Material-
Removal
Processes:
Cutting

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

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 Cutting Processes

FIGURE 8.1 Examples of cutting processes.

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 Orthogonal Cutting

FIGURE 8.2 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process (also called

orthogonal cutting).

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 Chip Formation

FIGURE 8.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting.
(b) Velocity diagram in the cutting zone.

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 Chips Produced in Metal Cutting
FIGURE 8.4 Basic types of chips produced in metal cutting and
their micrographs: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight
primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the tool-chip
interface; (c) continuous chip with built-up edge; (d) continuous
chip with large primary shear zone; (e) segmented or
nonhomogeneous chip; and (f) discontinuous chip. Source: After
M. C. Shaw, P. K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.

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 Continuous Chip Formation

FIGURE 8.5 Shiny (burnished) surface on the tool side of a continuous chip produced in
turning.

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 Chips Produced In Turning

FIGURE 8.8 Various chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece
and breaks; (c) continuous chip moving away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and
breaks off. Source: G. Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine Tools.

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 Oblique Cutting

FIGURE 8.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. (b) Top view,
showing the inclination angle i. (c) Types of chips produced with different inclination angles.

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 Right-Hand Cutting Tool

FIGURE 8.10 (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools
have traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been largely replaced
by carbide or other inserts of various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

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 Terminology in Lathe Turning
FIGURE 8.19
Terminology used in a
turning operation on a
lathe, where f is the feed
(in./rev or mm/rev) and d
is the depth of cut. Note
that feed in turning is
equivalent to the depth of
cut in orthogonal cutting
(Fig. 8.2), and the depth of
cut in turning is
equivalent to the turning
is equivalent to the width
of cut in orthogonal
cutting. See also Fig. 8.42.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

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 Types of Cutting Tool
Wear

FIGURE 8.20 (a) Types of wear

observed in cutting tools. The thermal
cracks shown are usually observed in
interrupted cutting operations, such as in
milling. (b) Catastrophic failure of tools.
(c) Features of tool wear in a turning
operation. The VB indicates average
flank wear. Source: (a) and (b) After V.
C. Venkatesh. (c) International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).

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 Crater and Flank Wear on a Tool

FIGURE 8.21 (a) Crater wear and (b) flank wear on a carbide tool. Source: J. C, Keefe,
Lehigh University.

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 Range of
Surface
Rough-
nesses
FIGURE 8.27 Range of surface
roughnesses obtained in various
machining processes. Note the wide
range within each group. (See also
Fig. 9.27).

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 Carbide Inserts
FIGURE 8.32 (a) Typical
carbide inserts with various
shapes and chip-breaker
features. Round inserts are
also available. The holes in
the inserts are standardized
for interchangeability.
Source: Courtesy of
Kyocera Engineered
Ceramics, Inc., and
Manufacturing Engineering,
Society of Manufacturing
Engineers. (b) Methods of
attaching inserts to a tool
shank by clamping, (c) with
wing lockpins, and (d) with
a brazed insert on a shank.

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 Relative Edge
Strength

FIGURE 8.33 Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping and breaking of inserts
with various shapes. Strength refers to that of the cutting edge shown by the included angles.
Source: Kennametal, Inc.

FIGURE 8.34 Edge preparation of

inserts to improve edge strength.
Source: Kennametal, Inc.

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 Properties of Tool Materials

FIGURE 8.38 Ranges of properties for various groups of tool materials. (See also various
tables in this chapter.)

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 Construction of Insert

FIGURE 8.39 Construction of polycrystalline cubic-boron-nitride or diamond layer on a

tungsten-carbide insert.

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Process Characteristics Commercial tolerances
(±mm)
Machining
Turning Turning and facing operations on all types of
materials; requires skilled labor; low production rate,
but medium to high with turret lathes and automatic
Fine: 0.05-0.13
Rough: 0.13
Skiving: 0.025-0.05
Processes
machines, requiring less-skilled labor.
Boring Internal surfaces or profiles, with characteristics 0.025
similar to turning; stiffness of boring bar important to
avoid chatter.
Drilling Round holes of various sizes and depths; requires 0.075
boring and reaming for improved accuracy; high
production rate; labor skill required depends on hole
location and accuracy specified.
Milling Variety of shapes involving contours, flat surfaces, 0.13-0.25
and slots; wide variety of tooling; versatile; low to
medium production rate; requires skilled labor.
Planing Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on large 0.08-0.13 TABLE 8.7 General
surfaces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor
skill required depends on part shape.
characteristics of machining
Shaping Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on relatively 0.05-0.13 processes.
small workpieces; suitable for low-quantity production;
labor skill required depends on part shape.
Broaching External and internal flat surfaces, slots and contours 0.025-0.15
with good surface finish; costly tooling; high
production rate; labor skill required depends on part
shape.
Sawing Straight and contour cuts on flats or structural shapes; 0.8
not suitable for hard materials unless saw has carbide
teeth or is coated with diamond; low production rate;
requires only low labor skill.

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 Lathe
Operations

FIGURE 8.40 Various

cutting operations that can
be performed on a lathe.

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 Designations for a Right-
Handed Cutting Tool

FIGURE 8.41 (a) Designations and symbols for a right-hand cutting tool; solid high-speed-steel
tools have a similar designation. The designation “right hand” means that the tool travels from right
to left, as shown in Fig. 8.19 (b) Square insert in a right-hand toolholder for a turning operation. A
wide variety of toolholder is available for holding inserts at various angles. Thus, the angles shown
in (a) can be achieved easily by selecting an appropriate insert and toolholder. Source: Kennametal,
Inc.

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 Turning Operation

FIGURE 8.42 (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f. cutting speed is the surface
speed of the workpiece at the tool tip. (b) Forces acting on a cutting tool in turning. Fc is the cutting force; Ft is the thrust or feed
force (in the direction of feed); and Fr is the radial force that tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being machined.
Compare this figure with Fig. 8.11 for a two-dimensional cutting operation.

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 Range of Cutting Speeds

FIGURE 8.43 The range of applicable cutting speeds and fees for a variety of tool
materials. Source: Valenite, Inc.

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 Cutting Speeds in Turning
WORKPIECE MATERIAL CUTTING SPEED
m/min ft/min
Aluminum alloys 200-1000 650-3300
Cast iron, gray 60-900 200-3000
Copper alloys 50-700 160-2300
High-temperature alloys 20-400 65-1300
Steels 50-500 160-1600
Stainless steels 50-300 160-1000
Thermoplastics and thermosets 90-240 300-800
Titanium alloys 10-100 30-330
Tungsten alloys 60-150 200-500

Note: (a) These speeds are for carbides and ceramic cutting tools. Speeds for high-speed steel
tool are lower than indicated. The higher ranges are for coated carbides and cermets. Speeds for
diamond tools are significantly higher than those indicated.
(b) Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 0.5-12 mm (0.02-0.5 in.)
(c) Feeds, f, are generally in the range of 0.15-1 mm/rev (0.006-0.040 in./rev).

TABLE 8.8 Approximate range of recommended cutting speeds for turning operations.

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 Components of a Lathe

FIGURE 8.44 Schematic illustration of the components of a lathe. Source: Courtesy of

Heidenreich & Harbeck.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

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 Machine Tool Parts Example

FIGURE 8.46 Typical parts made on computer-numerical-control machine tools.

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 Chisel and Crankshaft-Point Drills

FIGURE 8.48 (a) Standard chisel-point drill, with various features indicated. (b)
Crankshaft-point drill.

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 Drills and Drilling Operations

FIGURE 8.49 Various types of drills and drilling operations.

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 Speeds and Feeds in Drilling
WORKPIECE SURFACE FEED, mm/rev (in./rev) RPM
MATERIAL SPEED DRILL DIAMETER
m/min ft/min 1.5 mm 12.5 mm 1.5 mm 12.5 mm
(0.060 in.) (0.5 in.)
Aluminum alloys 30-120 100-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 6400-25,000 800-3000
Magnesium alloys 45-120 150-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 9600-25,000 1100-3000
Copper alloys 15-60 50-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.25 (0.010) 3200-12,000 400-1500
Steels 20-30 60-100 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-6400 500-800
Stainless steels 10-20 40-60 0.025 (0.001) 0.18 (0.007) 2100-4300 250-500
Titanium alloys 6-20 20-60 0.010 (0.0004) 0.15 (0.006) 1300-4300 150-500
Cast irons 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-12,000 500-1500
Thermoplastics 30-60 100-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.13 (0.005) 6400-12,000 800-1500
Thermosets 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.10 (0.004) 4300-12,000 500-1500

Note: As hole depth increases, speeds and feeds should be reduced. Selection of speeds and
feeds also depends on the specific surface finish required.

TABLE 8.10 General recommendations for speeds and feeds in drilling.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

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 Reamer and Tap Terminology

FIGURE 8.50 Terminology for a helical reamer.

FIGURE 8.51 Terminology for a tap.

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 Milling Operations

FIGURE 8.53 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab-
milling operation, showing depth of cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth of cut, tc; and workpiece
speed, v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance to reach full depth of cut.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Prentice Hall, 2003