021 Solid State Electronics

ADITYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE (A)
MECHATRONICS
By
Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty
Dept of Mechanical Engineering
Aditya Engineering College(A)
Surampalem.
Aditya Engineering College (A)
Solid-state electronics:
• Solid-state electronics means semiconductor electronics; electronic
equipment using semiconductor devices such as transistors, diodes and integrated
circuits (ICs).
• The term is also used for devices in which semiconductor electronics which have no
moving parts replace devices with moving parts, such as the solid-state relay in
which transistor switches are used in place of a moving-arm electromechanical relay,
or the solid-state drive (SSD) a type of semiconductor memory used in computers to
replace hard disk drives, which store data on a rotating disk
Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

• The term "solid state" became popular in the beginning of the semiconductor era in
the 1960s to distinguish this new technology based on the transistor, in which the
electronic action of devices occurred in a solid state, from previous electronic
equipment that used vacuum tubes, in which the electronic action occurred in
a gaseous state.
• A semiconductor device works by controlling an electric current consisting

of electrons or holes moving within a solid crystalline piece
of semiconducting material such as silicon, while the thermionic vacuum tubes it
replaced worked by controlling current conducted by a gas of particles, electrons
or ions, moving in a vacuum within a sealed tube.

Solid state electronic devices:
The following are the some of the solid state electronic devices
• PN junction diode
• BJT
• FET
• DIAC
• TRIAC
• LEDs

PN junction diode


BJT(Bipolar Junction Transistor)

FET(field-effect transistor)






DIAC:
• DIAC = DIode for Alternating Current.

• A DIAC is a two terminal, three layer bidirectional device which can be switched
from its OFF state to ON state for either polarity of applied voltage.
• There is no control terminal on this device.
• This device works when avalanche breakdown occurs.

Construction Of DIAC:-
• The DIAC can be constructed in either npn or pnp. Show the basic structure of DIAC in
PNP form. The two lead s are connected to p regions of silicon separated by an n-
region.
• The structure of DIAC is very much similar to that of a transistor, but there are several
important differences:-
i. There are no terminal attached to the base layer.

ii. The three regions are nearly identical in size.
iii. The doping concentrations are identical to give device symmetrical properties.


Mode Of Operation:-
Forward Bias
• T1 is positive with respect to T2.

Reverse Bias
• T1 is Negative with respect to T2.

Characteristic Of DIAC:-
• When a positive or negative voltage is applied across the terminals of a DIAC, only a
small leakage current IBO will flow through the device. As the applied voltage is
increased, the leakage current will continue to flow until the voltage reaches the break
over voltage VBO.
• At this point, avalanche breakdown of the reverse biased junction occurs and the device
exhibits negative resistance i.e. current through the device increases with decreasing
values of applied voltage.
• The Voltage across the device then drops to ‘break back’ voltage VF .


Application Of DIAC:-
• DIAC are used primarily for triggering of TRIAC.
• Light Dimmer
• Heat Control

TRIAC:-
• TRIAC= TRIode for Alternating Current.
• A TRIAC is a three terminal and five layer, semiconductor switching device which
can control alternating current in a load.
• It is bidirectional device. Means it can conduct current in both directions.
• The TRIAC of maximum rating of 16KW is available.

Construction Of TRIAC:-
• A TRIAC is equivalent to separate SCRs connected in inverse parallel.
• Anode of each connected to the cathode of the other with gates commoned. Therefore
a TRIAC acts like a bidirectional switch i.e. it can conduct current in either direction.
• It consist of three terminals namely, Main terminal1(MT1),Main terminal2(MT2) and

gate terminal (G).


Equivalent Circuit And Working Of TRIAC:-

The transistor equivalent circuit of TRIAC will be composed of four transistor. The
transistor Q1 and Q2 constitute the equivalent circuit of SCR1 and transistor Q3 and
Q4 constitute the equivalent circuit of SCR2.
Operation:-
(1) When MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 and appropriate gate current is allowed in
the gate circuit,SCR1 is turned ON while SCR2 remains OFF. In term of transistor
equivalent circuit Q1 and Q2 are forward biased while Q3 and Q4 are reverse biased.
Therefore, Transistor Q1 and Q2 conduct current. Since Q1 and Q2 from a positive
feedback, both transistor are quickly driven to saturation and a large current flow through
the load RL. This is as if switch Adduri
Mechatronics
between MT2 and MT1 were closed.
S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020
Diagram :-

(2) When MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 and appropriate gate current is allowed in
the gate circuit, SCR2 is turned ON and SCR1 is OFF. In term s of transistor equivalent
circuit, Q3 and Q4 are forward biased while Q1 and Q2 are reverse biased. Therefore,
transistor Q3 and Q4 will conduct. The current in load RL will quickly attain a large value.
The circuit will behave as if a switch is closed between MT2 and MT1.

Mode Of Operation:-
1) MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 and Gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.

2) MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a Gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.

3) MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a Gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.

4) MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a Gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.

Characteristic Curve Of TRIAC:-

• The V-I characteristic for TRIAC in the
Ist and IIIrd quadrants are essentially
identical to those of an SCR in the Ist
quadrant.
• The TRIAC can be operated with either
positive or negative gate control voltage
but in normal operation usually the gate
voltage is positive in quadrant Ist and
negative in quadrant IIIrd.
• The supply voltage at which the TRIAC
is turned ON depends upon the gate
current.

Application Of TRIAC:-
• It can operate and switch both half cycles of an AC waveform.
• In DC applications, SCRs are required to be connected with a parallel diode to

protect against reverse voltage. But the TRAIC may work without a diode, a safe
breakdown is possible in either directions.
• It can be used as a high power lamp switch
• It can be used to Phase Control.

Light Emitting Diode (LED):
• A light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a PN junction opto-semiconductor that

emits a monochromatic (single color) light when operated in a forward biased
direction.
• LEDs convert electrical energy into light energy. They are frequently used as "pilot"
lights in electronic appliances to indicate whether the circuit is closed or not.

• The most important part of a light emitting diode (LED) is the semi-conductor chip
located in the center of the bulb
• The chip has two regions separated by a junction.

1. P region
2. N region
• The p region is dominated by positive electric charges, and the n region is dominated
by negative electric charges.
• The junction acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons between the p and the n regions.

• When sufficient voltage is applied to the chip, the electrons which is in n region cross
the junction and transfer into the p region. This results in current flow.

Working Principle Of LED:

• When sufficient voltage is applied to the chip across the leads of the LED, electrons
can move easily in only one direction across the junction between the p and n regions.

• When a voltage is applied and the current starts to flow, electrons in the n region
have sufficient energy to move across the junction into the p region.
• Each time an electron recombines with a positive charge, electric potential energy is
converted into electromagnetic energy.
• For each recombination of a negative and a positive charge, an electromagnetic

energy is emitted in the form of a photon of light. Efficiency this light depends on
the semi-conductor material which is usually a combination of the chemical
elements gallium, arsenic and phosphorus.

Characteristics:

Advantages:
• Energy efficient(produce more light per watt)
• Long lifetime(60,000 Hours or more)
• Rugged(made-up of solid material, no breakage like filament)
• No warm-up period(achieve full bright light in nanoseconds)
• Not effected by cold temperature(used in sub zero weather)
• Directional(direct the light where you want)
• Environment Friendly(contains no mercury)
• Controllable(brightness and colour can be controlled)
• Can sustain over frequent on-off cycle
Disadvantages:
• Very expensive than other lighting technologies
• Requires accurate voltage & constant current flow
• Can shift colour due to age & temperature
• Cannot be used in high temperature(Lead to device failure)

Applications
• Vehicle indicator lights and brake lights.
• Currently Audi & BMW integrate high power LEDs.
• Mobile phone flash lights.(Surface Mount Diode)
• LED screens for advertising & information.
• Due to low power consumption, small size & long life LEDs are used in many
electrical equipment's.(indicator)
• Now a days airports, hotels, subways, shopping centres and some homes feature
LEDs.
• LED based traffic signal has been successful & is also growing rapidly.
Photodiode:
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical
current. The current is generated when photons are absorbed in
the photodiode. Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have
large or small surface areas.

Construction:

Signal conditioning:
Signal conditioning is the manipulation of a signal in a way that prepares it for
the next stage of processing. Many applications involve environmental or structural
measurement, such as temperature and vibration, from sensors. These sensors, in turn,
require signal conditioning before a data acquisition device can effectively and
accurately measure the signal.

Types of signal conditioning:
• DC Signal conditioning system.
• AC signal conditioning system.

DC Signal conditioning system.

AC signal conditioning system.

Filter:
A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain frequencies while
attenuating other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract important frequencies from
signals that also contain undesirable or irrelevant frequencies.
In the field of electronics, there are many practical applications for filters. Examples
include:
Radio communications: Filters enable radio receivers to only "see" the desired
signal while rejecting all other signals (assuming that the other signals have different
frequency content).

DC power supplies: Filters are used to eliminate undesired high frequencies (i.e., noise)
that are present on AC input lines. Additionally, filters are used on a power supply's
output to reduce ripple.
Audio electronics: A crossover network is a network of filters used to channel low-

frequency audio to woofers, mid-range frequencies to midrange speakers, and high-
frequency sounds to tweeters.
Analog-to-digital conversion: Filters are placed in front of an ADC input to

minimize aliasing.

Filters are classified as
1. Passive filters
2. Active filters
Active filters:
A filter is said to be passive, if it consists of amplifying elements such as transistors,
operational amplifiers etc...
Passive filters:
A filter is said to be active, if it consists of only non-amplifying elements such as
resistors, inductors and capacitors.

Based on the frequency response of the circuit, active filters and passive filters are
classified as
• Low pass filter(LPF)

• High pass filters(HPF)
• Band pass filters(BPF)
• Band stop or band reject filters(BRF)

Low pass filter(LPF):

High pass filters(HPF):

Band pass filters(BPF):

Band stop or band reject filters(BRF):

Operational Amplifier:
An Operational Amplifier or op-amp is a voltage amplifying device designed to be used

with external feedback components such as resistors and capacitors between its output
and input terminals. It is a high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input
and usually a single-ended output. Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic
devices today as they are used in a vast array of consumer, industrial, and scientific
devices.

A differential amplifier (as shown above) is one type of op-amp. Others include:
• A fully differential amplifier which is like an op-amp, but with two outputs.
• The instrumentation amplifier which is usually built from three op-amps.
• The isolation amplifier which is like an instrumentation amplifier, but having tolerance
to common-mode voltages (that destroy an ordinary op-amp).
• A negative-feedback amplifier, which is usually built from one or more op-amps and a
resistive feedback network.
What an Op-Amp looks like in today's world

Op-amp pin diagram:

There are 8 pins in a common Op-Amp, like the 741 which is used in many instructional
courses.
• Pin 1: Offset null
• Pin 2: Inverting input terminal
• Pin 3: Non-inverting input terminal
• Pin 4: –VCC (negative voltage supply)
• Pin 5: Offset null
• Pin 6: Output voltage
• Pin 7: +VCC (positive voltage supply)
• Pin 8: No Connection
Inverting amplifier:
• In an inverting amplifier circuit, the operational amplifier inverting input receives

feedback from the output of the amplifier.
• Assuming the op-amp is ideal and applying the concept of virtual short at the input
terminals of op-amp, the voltage at the inverting terminal is equal to non-inverting
terminal.
• The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier is connected to ground. As the
gain of the op amp itself is very high and the output from the amplifier is a matter of
only a few volts, this means that the difference between the two input terminals is
exceedingly small and can be ignored.
• As the non-inverting input of the operational amplifier is held at ground potential this
means that the inverting input must be virtually at earth potential.


Non-Inverting Amplifier:
• The non-inverting amplifier is one in which the output is in phase with respect to the
input.
• The feedback is applied at the inverting input. However, the input is now applied at the
non-inverting input.
• The output is a non-Inverted (in terms of phase) amplified version of input.
• The gain of the non-inverting amplifier circuit for the operational amplifier is easy to
determine.
• The calculation hinges around the fact that the voltage at both inputs is the same.
• This arises from the fact that the gain of the amplifier is exceedingly high.
• If the output of the circuit remains within the supply rails of the amplifier, then the
output voltage divided by the gain means that there is virtually no difference between
the two inputs


Applications of an Op-Amp:-
• Op-Amp is an universal amplifier.
• Voltage comparators.
• Precision rectifiers.
• Analogue to digital converters.
• Digital to analogue converters.
• Filters.
• Differentiators and integrators.
• Voltage and current regulator.
• Analogue to computers.

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ADITYA ENGINEERING COLLEGE (A)

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

• A semiconductor device works by controlling an electric current consisting

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Solid state electronic devices:

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

BJT(Bipolar Junction Transistor)

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

• DIAC = DIode for Alternating Current.

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

i. There are no terminal attached to the base layer.

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

• TRIAC= TRIode for Alternating Current.

• It is bidirectional device. Means it can conduct current in both directions.

• The TRIAC of maximum rating of 16KW is available.

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

• A TRIAC is equivalent to separate SCRs connected in inverse parallel.

• It consist of three terminals namely, Main terminal1(MT1),Main terminal2(MT2) and

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Equivalent Circuit And Working Of TRIAC:-

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Characteristic Curve Of TRIAC:-

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

• In DC applications, SCRs are required to be connected with a parallel diode to

• It can be used as a high power lamp switch

• It can be used to Phase Control.

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Light Emitting Diode (LED):

• A light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a PN junction opto-semiconductor that

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

• The chip has two regions separated by a junction.

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Working Principle Of LED:

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

• For each recombination of a negative and a positive charge, an electromagnetic

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020

Mechatronics Adduri S S M Sitaramamurty TUESDAY , SEP 22ND, 2020