Timber and Wood Products: Basic Material Properties and Characteristics

Timber as Construction Material
Timber and Wood Products
Basic material properties and

characteristics.
SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD
SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 1

Timber in history
• Timber is one of the
oldest building
materials known.
• It has been used in
buildings in most
parts of the world for
thousands of years.
• In low energy ages,
timber was the
natural material of
choice.
Melbourne’s Exhibition Building 1880

Timber’s potential today

• Timber is a light
construction material
with a high strength
to weight ratio.
• Economic and easy
to use, it is available
as a structural and
appearance product,
and suitable for a
wide range of uses.
Hardwood in a drying yard

The timber – American Wood Council

“Only one primary building material comes from
a renewable resource, cleans the air and water;
utilizes nearly 100% of its resource for products;
is the lowest of all in its energy requirements for
its manufacturing; creates fewer air and water
emissions than any of its alternatives; and is
totally reusable, recyclable and 100%
biodegradable: WOOD. And it has been
increasing in US net reserves since 1952, with
growth exceeding harvest in the US by more than
30%.”

The nature of timber

• Timber is a natural
product, drawn from
the wood in the
trunks of trees.
• Its character is
consistent with the
species of tree and
the form and growth
over time of the
wood in it.
Regrowth in a native forest

The nature of timber

• Cellular structure
is very efficient
• Handles both
compression and
tension
• Different strengths
withstand against
the grain
Stiffness (Elasticity Modulus) per unit weight

Measure of deformation due to applied load
Definition
• Wood suitable for building or other
engineering purposes is called timber
– Standing timber – part of a living tree
– Rough timber – part of a felled tree
– Converted timber – sawn to various forms
like beams, battens and planks, etc

Structure of Timber
• Tree – Crown, Trunk, Roots
• Cross section of a tree
– Bark (outer and inner) – outermost protective layer of
cells and woody fibers that splits and peels off
– Cambium – outermost one ring between the bark and
sap wood not yet converted into wood
– Sap wood – outer annual rings that transmit sap from
root to branches
– Heart wood – innermost rings surrounding pith
– Pith or Medula – first formed portion of stem of tree,
initially to convey sap
– Annual rings
– Medullary rays – thin horizontal veins from bark to pith
to carry sap inwards

Tree growth
• Spring season
– Salt and water solution sucked by the roots
– Under sunlight absorbs CO2 from air
– Viscous solution is called sap
• Autumn season
– Sap descends under the bark and leaves a
thick layer
– Sap layer transformed into wood as
cambium layer
– New layer added each year as annual ring
– Sap carried through medullary rays from
bark to interior

Tree growth
• New wood on outside of tree
– oldest wood on the inside
– youngest wood on the outside
– diameter largest at the base
– one ring (layer) per growing season
• Tree in forest grows toward light

– trunk is straight
– lower branches die
– leaving small knots in wood
• Bark protects wood from damage

– the tree sheds bark each year

Major parts of tree

Major parts of tree


Production of wood
Pith - the start of growth in the tree
• the original sapling
Cambium - growth cells
• wood cells created on the inside
• bark cells created on the outside
Sapwood - newest wood

• on the outside of tree (~ 1-3 cm)
• takes nutrients from root to leaves
Heartwood - older wood
• cells closed - can’t pass nutrients
• storage for waste - extractives

Heartwood and Softwood

Hard and Soft Wood Characteristics

Property Soft Wood Hard Wood
• Color Lighter Darker
• Growth Faster Slower
• Weight Lighter Heavier
• Density Low High
• Annual Rings Distinct Indistinct
• Heart wood & Indistinguishable distinguishable
Sap wood
• Strength Strong along grains Strong along
& across grains
• Conversion Easy Difficult
• Resinous Exists in pores Does not exist
• Examples Chir, Fir, Conifer Teak, sal, shisham

Characteristics of Good Timber

• Obtained from heartwood area of tree and free from sap
• Should have straight and close fibers
• Dark uniform color with uniform texture
• When struck sonorous ringing sound is produced
• Narrow annular rings, closer the rings greater is the
strength
• Compact medullary rays
• Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface
• No clogging of saw teeth during sawing
• Free from the defects like dead knots, shakes etc
• Heavy weight
• No woolliness at fresh cut surface
• Bright and smooth surface when planed

Characteristics of good timbers
Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit

hard and of shining appearance.
Color: A color should preferably be dark
Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects

such as knots, flaws, shakes etc
Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of

resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals, physical
agencies, and mechanical agencies.
18
Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when

load causing its deformation is removed.
Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance

to fire.
Hardness: A good timber should be hard.
Mechanical wear: A good timber should not

deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear or abrasion.
19
Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its

shape during conversion or seasoning
Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell.

Unpleasant smell indicates decayed timber
Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound

when struck
Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong

for working as structural member such as joist, beam,
rafter etc.
20
Structure: The structure should be uniform.
Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.)

capable of offering resistance to shocks due to vibration.
Water permeability: A good timber should have low

water permeability, which is measured by the quantity of
water filtered through unit surface area of specimen of
wood.
21
Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to

be sound and strong.
Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable.

It should not clog the teeth of saw.
22
Mechanical Properties
• Tensile Strength – Timber is stronger in
tension along the rain but it’s quite difficult to
determine this because of the difficulties in
conducting test.
• Compressive Strength – The strength along
the grain is important for columns, props, and
post.
• Shear Strength – Shear strength is important in
the case of the beam and slabs.
• Bending Strength or Flexural Strength – This
refers as the strength of the timber as a beam.
23
Mechanical Properties
• Cleavability – High resistance for cleavage is important for nailing and screwing
while low splitting strength is important for used as firewood.
• Brittleness – is use to describe the property of suffering little deformations before
breaking.
• Torsion Strength – is used to determine the torsion strength of the timber and
the specimen is loaded up to failure.
• Hardness – is important in case of timber for paving blocks flooring bearings and
other similar purposes.
• Stiffness - This property is important to determine the deflection of a timber under
a load
24
Classifications of Timber
• Modulus of Elasticity
 Group A: E = 12.5 GPa
 Group B: E = 9.8 GPa to 12.5 GPa
 Group C: E = 5.6 GPa to 9.8 Gpa
• Durability
 High Durability
 Moderate Durability
 Low Durability
25
Classifications of Timber
• Seasoning characteristics
 High refractory (Class A)
 Moderately refractory (Class B)
 Non refractory (Class C)
• Grading
 Select-Grade
 Grade I
 Grade II
26
Identifications of Timber
• General Properties
 Color – a darker color in wood indicates greater durability.
 Odor – it is present only on freshly cut trees.
 Hardness – is the ability of wood to withstand indentations caused
by harder bodies.
 Density – densest woods are generally the strongest.
27
 Grain - Depending on the actual alignment, the grain may be

straight, spiral, interlocked, wavy or irregular.
• Spiral Grain
• Interlocked Grain
• Wavy Grain
 Texture - In hardwoods, the texture depends upon the size
and distribution vessels and rays. In softwoods, it is
determined by the size and distribution of tracheid.
28
 Luster- is the ability to reflect light beam pointedly.

 Workability- the relative case in which wood is shaped cut
and fastened together than the others.
 Warping- is the general term used to describe any variation
from a true surface.
 Moisture content- is a percentage of the mass of water over
the mass of wood fibre in a piece of timber.
 Specific Gravity- is the ratio found by dividing the weight of a
substance by the weight of an equal volume of pure water.
29
Defects in Timber – during growth

• Shakes – separations between annual rings
– Star shake – radial splits or cracks wider on surface and narrow
inwards, due to severe heat and frost action
– Heart shake – radial splits in heartwood due to shrinkage
– Cup shake – curved split among annual rings. Also ring shake
• Twisted fibers – wind turning the trunk and twisting fibers
• Rind gall – growth of sapwood layer over wounds
• Upsets – crushing of transverse fibers due to winds
• Foxiness – yellow or red stains as sign of decay
• Doatiness – speckled stain indicating start of decay due
to over maturity or bad ventilation
• Druxiness – Whitish spot or streaks indicating early
decay
• Coarse grains – wide annual rings due to rapid growth

Defects in Timber – knots

• Knots – root of a branch or base of twigs buried in
mother branch annual rings. This modifies the
tissues in elliptical or concentric circles
– Dead or loose knot - separable
– Live or sound knot – inseparable
• Size based classification
– Pin knot – under 12 mm
– Small knot – 12 to 20 mm
– Medium knot – 20 to 40 mm
– Large knot – over 40 mm
• Form based classification
– Round knot
– Spike knot

Live Knot and Dead Knot
Live Knot Dead Knot

Defects in Timber

Defects in Timber

DEFECTS IN TIMBER:
Most common defects in timber are:
•Heart Shakes
•Star Shakes
•Cup Shakes
•Radial Shakes
•Rind Galls
•Wind Cracks
•Knots
•Dead Wood
35
(1) Heart Shakes:
These are splits occurring in the centre of the tree and

running from the pith (inner most part) to wards the
sap wood from the medullary (vascular tissues)
rays. In some timbers, these splits are hardly visible
and in some timbers these are quite permanent.
Heart shakes are caused due to shrinkage of interior
parts due to age. A heart shake straight across the
trunk is not a serious defect.
36
(2) Star Shakes:
These are splits which radiate from the centre of the

timber or from the bark (outer side), running in the
planes of medullary rays. These occur due to severe frost
or scorching heat of the sun.
37
(3) Cup Shakes:
These are curved splits which separate the whole or

part of one annual ring from an other. These are
caused due to the unequal growth of the timber.
38
(4) Radial Shakes:
These are similar to the star shakes and occur in felled

timber when exposed to the sun during seasoning.
Radial shakes are generally irregular, fine and numerous.
In this many splits are appeared.
39
(5) Rind Galls:
These are typical enlarged swellings and occur

due to branches cut-off.
40
(6) Wind Cracks:
These are shakes or splits on the sides of a bark of

timber due to shrinkage of exterior surface exposed to
atmospheric influence.
41
(7) Knots:
These are the roots of the small branches of the tree.

These are not harmful.
42
(8) Dead Wood:
It is the deficient in strength and weight and is the result

of trees being felled after maturity.
43
Defects in Timber - Diseases & Decay

• Diseases
– Dry rot – fungus turns timber to dry powder
– Wet rot – decay due to alternate wetting and drying
• Decay
– Decay due to fungal and bacterial attack
– Damage due to insects
• Termites, white ants
• Beetles – powder post beetles, long horn beetles,
ambrosia beetle, furniture beetles, death watch beetles
• Carpenter ants
– Damage due to rodents

Seasoning of Timber
• Seasoning – extraction of moist sap under
controlled conditions (as nearly as possible at a
uniform rate) from all parts of timber, and to leave
inextricable moisture uniformly distributed
throughout
• Irregular drying causes irregular shrinkage
leading to warping and shakes formation
• Seasoning methods
– Air or natural seasoning – timber stacked in ventilated
shady place. Slow process takes six months
– Kiln or artificial seasoning – steam chamber with
controllable temperature and humidity. Rapid 4-5 days

Seasoning of Timber
Air Seasoning Kiln Seasoning
• Slow process • Quick process
• Simple and economical • Technical and expensive
• Difficult to reduce • Moisture reduced to any
moisture content below desired level
15 to 18 % • Timber less prone to
• Timber more prone to fungi and insect attack
fungi and insect attack • Less stacking space
• More stacking space needed
needed • Timber obtained is
• Stronger timber is comparatively weaker
obtained

Seasoning of Timber - Objectives

• Wet timber is susceptible to decay by fungi,
borers, termites, etc
• Moisture removal makes timber lighter
• Reduced moisture helps in painting and
polishing of timber
• Application of chemical preservatives is easy
• Provides strength and stability
• Stops shrinkage on drying
• Provides better electrical resistance

Seasoning of Timber
• Preventing drying of logs
– Felled tree roughly squared and sawn
– Ends sealed to prevent rapid evaporation of
moisture
– Logs kept completely submerged in running water
• Stacking of square logs
– Stacked under shade, free from weeds and debris
– One and nine stacking method
– Close crib stacking method - logs, poles, planks
– Open crib stacking method - logs, poles, planks

Moisture and drying in wood cells

100% MC Growing
tree
Unseasoned
timber
free water
25% MC bound water

Partially
seasoned fibre saturation
timber
removed
bound
Seasoned water
15% MC
timber
Benefits of drying
• Drying timber
increases its:
– strength;
– stiffness;
– stability
– durability; &
– ease of fastening.
• It is ideally dried to a
moisture content in
equilibrium with its
service environment.
Checking the moisture content

Timber Preservation
• Preservation is protection of timber from
attack of insects and internal decay
• Perfect seasoning is the best form of
timber preservation
• Charring – ground embedded ends of
posts. Quenching post ends in water
after charring in wood fire. Prevents dry
rot and attack of worms
• Tarring – coating with tar or pitch

Timber Preservation
• Painting – application of paint coat on dry timber to
provide good appearance and protection from attack
by white ants
• Creosoting – application of creosote oil on railway
sleepers, piles and electricity poles. Bad color, bad
smell, stains plaster
• Wolman salt – creosote and salt in water. NaF, ZnCl,
MgSiF, CuSO4
• Ascu treatment – application of powder chemicals
arsenic pentaoxide, blue vitriol, potassium dichromate
• Fire proofing – timber made fire resistance by soaking
in NH4SO4, NH3Cl, NH4PO3, NaAs, ZnCl

Wood Products
• Veneers
• Plywood
• Fiber Boards
• Particle Boards or Chip Boards
• Block Boards
• Batten Boards
• Lamina Boards

Wood Products
• Veneers
– Thin sheets of wood peeled off, sliced or
sawn from a log of wood having attractive or
artistic grain arrangement
– Sheet thickness from 0.4 mm to 6 mm
– Walnut, teak and rosewood veneers used in
plywood, lamina boards and batten boards

Timber products: veneer

• Thin layers of solid
wood sliced or
peeled from a log
and dried.
• High quality material
is used as a
decorative finish.
• Lower grade material
is used to make
plywood and similar
products.
Veneer leaf
Wood Products
• Plywood
– Under pressure gluing together of veneer
plies in odd number to make 3 mm to 6 mm
thick sheet
– Grains of alternate layers at right angle to
each other
– Outer plies called face plies or faces
– Used for covering or paneling of walls,
doors, furniture and shuttering

Timber products: plywood

• Layers of veneer
glued together so
that the grain
direction alternates
between layers.
• Usually produced in
sheets.
• Very good in a
structure, as a lining
and as a flooring
surface.

Wood Products
• Plywood Advantages
– Better appearance
– Stronger than same thickness wood
– Elastic and may be bent to give any shape
– Not much affected by climatic changes
– Uniform strength in all directions
– Available in large sizes not possible in wood
– Almost negligible shrinkage and expansion
– Does not split under nails

Questions ?

Variation: species & growth

• Species and
genetics:
– selected stock or
natural seed.
• Climate:
– wet or dry, cold or
warm.
• Arrangement:
– native forest or
plantation.

Each piece is unique
Quarter sawn hardwood
Myrtle burl veneer

Properties are variable

• Drying (seasoning) & shrinkage
• Strength & hardness
• Durability
• Appearance

Timber shrinks as it dries

• It shrinks at different rates in
different directions.
• Once dry, it will expand & Radial
Tangential
shrinkage
contract to be in equilibrium shrinkage
with changing local conditions.
Shrinkage from 12% to 25% MC

Hardwood Softwood
Radiata pine Rad 3.5% Tang 4%

Hoop pine Rad 2.5% Tang 3.5% Longitudinal
Cypress Rad 3.5% Tang 4% shrinkage
Spotted gum Rad 4.5% Tang 6%
Karri Rad 4.5% Tang 10%
Sydney blue gumRad 5% Tang 9%
Grey Ironbark Rad 5.5% Tang 7.5%
Mountain ash Rad 6.5% Tang 13%

Shrinkage in sawn sections

• Tangential shrinkage
is the highest;
• So, the growth rings
tend to shorten as the
timber dries.

Timber dries at different rates

• Pines have a porous cell structure:
– They can be dried very quickly.
– Turnaround time from saw to store can
be as low as a week.
• Hardwoods have a non-porous cell
structure:
– The moisture must diffuse through the
cell wall.
– Drying can be very slow.
– It must be done carefully.

Grain, strength & stiffness
Properties of the grain

Direction of grain
Strong parallel to grain & stiff parallel to grain
Weak perpendicular to grain

Moisture of Timber
• Shrinkage and Swelling - Shrinkage
occurs as moisture content decreases,
while swelling takes place when it
increases.
67
Summary of characteristics
• Timber is a natural material
• Each piece is unique in fibre, texture and
colour
• Its strength is dependant on the
properties of the wood and the slope of
the grain
• It takes up and gives up moisture
• It expands and shrinks as it does so
• It deteriorates in line with exposure

Timber products
• Timber is available in a wide range of
products and species including:
– Solid sawn, moulded and laminated timber;
– Veneer;
– Plywood; and
– Wood panels.

Timber products: sawn

• Hardwood or
softwood.
• Solid timber cut from
a log and dried.
• It is a versatile
material used for
moulding, frames and
exposed structures.
• Size is restricted.

Timber products: mouldings

• Hardwood or
softwood.
• Solid seasoned
timber milled to a
wide variety of
shapes.

Timber products: glue laminated

beam • Small pieces of
timber glued
together to form a
larger element.
• Used as both a
bench top structural and
finishing element.
• Size is limited only
by transport
capacity.

Timber products: curved glulam

• Glue laminated
material can be
curved.
Curved bar
Timber products: wood panels

• Panels made from
wood or wood fibres
bound together with
glue, or other binder:
– Particleboard
– Medium Density
Fibreboard (MDF)
MDF sheet – Hardboard
– Core board

Appearance grading
• Production process
of sorting products
into groups with
similar
characteristics &
properties.
• Timber identified by
calling up a specific
grade.
Visual grading
Grading standards
• AS 1810-1995 Timber - Seasoned
cypress pine - Milled products
• AS 2796-1999 Timber - Hardwood -
Sawn and milled products
• AS 4785-2002 Timber - Softwood -
Sawn and milled products

AS 2796 Hardwood - Sawn & milled

• This standard defines the requirements
for hardwood used for visual
applications: architectural (flooring, etc),
lining & cladding; &
• It is in two main sections:
– product requirements; &
– visual grades.

Appearance grading - rules

• Establish permissible limits on:
– gum vein
– knot size & frequency (location unimportant)
– splits, cracks, checks (size and frequency)
– stain (colour), grain uniformity
– utility: want, wane, cup, bow, spring, twist

Grade range
• From select grade
– uniform wood with
few natural features
• Through to high
feature grade
– including lively
natural feature as
part of a desirable
aesthetic.


• Tolerances are established for the major
product groups (not grades):
– Joinery and dressed boards;
– Strip and overlay flooring, mouldings, sawn
boards for feedstock; &
– Light decking, lining boards, cladding, facia,
bargeboards.

AS 2796 Part 1 - distortion

• Bow - depends on
thickness
• Spring - dependent on
width
• Twist - separate limits
for less or more than
25 mm thick
• Cup - 1mm per 100
mm width

AS 2796 Part 1
• No lyctid susceptible sapwood is
allowed. (Lyctids are small wood eating insects.)
• MC anywhere in a piece must be
between:
– 9-14% for most products including flooring.
– 8-13% for parquet & furniture components.


• The standard recognises feature as a
desirable visual characteristic;
• Therefore, distortion and machining
tolerances are associated with product,
not grade; &
• The timber can then be specified with
the desired appearance for any function.

AS 4785 Softwood - Sawn & milled

• Layout is similar to AS 2796 with product
requirements & visual grades;
• Visual grades are Clear, Appearance,
Select, Standard, Utility Grade;
• With radiata, there is a much greater use
of industry grades; &
• Terms can vary between companies.

Jointing
• Timber is a highly
versatile material
that can be shaped
and joined easily.
Half housed
Mortice and tenon Housed

Jointing methods
Biscuit Dowel
Overlap Fixing blocks

Conclusions
• Timber is a natural product.
• It has been used for centuries.
• Skilled use and understanding of the
material can yield excellent results.


Classification of Timber
• On the basis of position
– Standing timber. Living tree
– Rough timber. Felled trees
– Converted timber. Logs sawn into planks, posts, etc
• On the basis of grading
– Selected grade. Due to defects, basic strength
reduced not more than 12.5%
– Standard grade. Due to defects basic strength
reduced not more than 25%
– Common grade. Due to defects basic strength
reduced not more than 37.5%

• On the basis of Modulus of Elasticity
– Group A: Bending modulus > 12.5 kN/mm2
– Group B: Bending modulus from 9.8 kN/mm2
to 12.5 kN/mm2
– Group C: Bending modulus from 5.6 kN/mm2
to 9.8 kN/mm2
• On the basis of Availability
–X most common, exceeding 1415 m3 per year
–Y common, 355 m3 to 1415 m3 per year
–Z less common, below 355 m3

• On the basis of Durability. Specimen of 600 x 50 x 50
mm buried in ground to half length, to determine
condition at where ages
– High durability: Average life more than 120 months
– Moderate durability: Average life between 120 and 60 months
– Low durability: Average life less than 60 months
• On the basis of seasoning characteristics
– High refractory (class A). Slow and difficult to season
– Moderately refractory (class B). Seasoned under protection
against rapid drying
– Non-refractory (class C). Can be rapidly seasoned free from
defects

• On the basis of Treatability. Resistance
offered to preservatives under a working
pressure of 1.05 N/mm2
– Easily treatable
– Treatable but complete preservation not
easily obtained
– Partially treatable
– Refractory to treatment
– Very refractory to treatment

Seasoning of Timber
• Reduces the shrinkage and warping
after placement in structure
• Increase strength, durability and
workability
• Reduce its tendency to split and decay
• Make it suitable for painting
• Reduce its weight

Seasoning of Timber
• Natural or air seasoning
• Artificial seasoning
• Water seasoning
– Boiling
– Kiln seasoning
– Chemical or salt seasoning
– Electric seasoning
– McNeill’s process

Physical Properties of Wood

• Density
• Bulk modulus
• Moisture movement
• Shrinkage
• Swelling
• Heat conductivity
• Sound conductivity
• Resistance to acids and alkalis

Mechanical Properties of Wood

• Compressive strength
• Tensile strength
• Bending strength
• Shearing strength
• Stiffness
• Toughness
• Cleavability
• Hardness
• Moisture effect
• Temperature effect

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Timber as Construction Material

Timber and Wood Products

Basic material properties and

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 1

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 2

Timber’s potential today

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 3

The timber – American Wood Council

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 4

The nature of timber

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 5

The nature of timber

Stiffness (Elasticity Modulus) per unit weight

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 7

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 8

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 9

• Tree in forest grows toward light

• Bark protects wood from damage

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 10

Major parts of tree

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 11

Major parts of tree

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 12

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 13

Sapwood - newest wood

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 14

Heartwood and Softwood

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 15

Hard and Soft Wood Characteristics

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 16

Characteristics of Good Timber

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 17

Characteristics of good timbers

Appearance: A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit

Color: A color should preferably be dark

Defects: A good timber should be free from series defects

Durability: A good timber should be durable and capable of

Elasticity: The timber returns to its original shape when

Fire resistance: A dense wood offers good resistance

Hardness: A good timber should be hard.

Mechanical wear: A good timber should not

Shape: A good timber should be capable of retaining its

Smell: A good timber should have sweet smell.

Sound: A good timber should give a clear ringing sound

Strength: A good timber should be sufficiently strong

Structure: The structure should be uniform.

Toughness: A good timber should be tough (i.e.)

Water permeability: A good timber should have low

Weight: The timber with heavy weight is considered to

Working conditions: Timber should be easily workable.

 Grain - Depending on the actual alignment, the grain may be

 Luster- is the ability to reflect light beam pointedly.

Defects in Timber – during growth

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 30

Defects in Timber – knots

SCEE, NUST, ISLAMABAD 31