Topic 1: Cell

Biology
 1.1 Introduction to Cells
Outline the cell theory:

The cell theory states that:

• All living organisms are composed of cells
• A cell is the smallest form of life.
• All cells come from pre existing cells.

Page 2
Evidence for the cell theory:
All living organisms are composed of cells
• The microscope has played a very
important role in gathering evidence for
the cell theory.
 
• Robert Hooke was the first scientist to
see cells in 1665. 
 Evidence for the cell theory:
A cell is the smallest form of life.

• The second statement of the cell theory still holds true because
scientists have yet to find any living thing that is not
composed of at least one cell.
 Evidence for the cell theory:
All cells come from pre existing cells.

• The evidence for support of the last

statement of the cell theory has shown
up in biology experiments that disprove
the idea of spontaneous generation.  

• The famous experiments of Louis

Pasteur in the 1860's provided the
evidence needed to support the final
statement of the cell theory. 

• He proved that spontaneous generation

did not exist and that life could only
come from life. 

• The only exception to this would be

when life first appeared on the Earth’s
surface.
 Exceptions to the Cell
Theory
• Trends led to the development of the cell theory.
• Some discrepancies (exceptions to the general trend) were
found.
• It is the job of scientists to judge whether the discrepancies are
common or serious enough to discard the theory.

• The exceptions to the cell theory will most likely never discard
the theory, as so many tissues are composed of cells.
 Exceptions:
• There are some exceptions
that do not seem to fit
with the ideas of the cell
theory as well as others.

• Skeletal (striated)
muscles have muscle
fibers which have a
membrane but contain
hundreds of nuclei. They
are larger than most
animal cells.
• Fungi consist of narrow
thread-like hyphae. In some
types of fungi, the hyphae
are divided into small cell-
like sections by walls called
septa.
• However, aseptate fungi
have no septa. Each hypha
is an uninterrupted tube-like
structure with many nuclei
spread along it.
• Algae are eukaryotic
unicellular organisms that
feed by photosynthesis.
• There are some species of
giant algae, that are very large
in size and still are unicellular
having one nucleus.
• If a new organism of length
100 mm was discovered, we
would certainly expect it to
consist of many cells, not just
one.
 Discuss the cell theory and its limitations. ( 7 marks)
• cell theory:
• a. cell theory is the accepted explanation of life ✔
• b. organisms are composed of «one or more» cells ✔
• c. cells are the basic/fundamental/smallest units of life ✔
• d. cells can only come from pre-existing cells ✔
• e. spontaneous generation of life has been disproven ✔

• limitations:
• f. striated muscle cells contain many nuclei «while most eukaryotic cells have one nucleus»
OR
red blood cells have no nucleus «while most eukaryotic cells have one nucleus» ✔
• g. giant algae have complex single cell structure
OR
organisms as large as giant algae would be expected to be multicellular, but they have only one cell with one
nucleus ✔
• h. aseptate fungal hyphae are tube-like structures that contain no cell membranes between the many nuclei
OR
slime molds contain many nuclei ✔
• i. viruses have some characteristics of living organisms but are not cells ✔
• j. if all cells come from pre-existing cells, where did the first one come from? ✔
•  
• Allow description of Pasteur’s experiments
• Do not accept a list of limitations without explanation
 Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life

• Unicellular organisms consist

of only one cell and that one
cell must carry out all life
functions for that organism.

• This includes metabolism,

homeostasis, growth,
nutrition, excretion, response
Page 8 – Functions of Life
and reproduction. Pages 9 and 10 –
Examples of functions of
life in Paramecium and
Chlamydomonas
Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of
specimens in images of known magnification.

• Photographs or drawings of
images seen under a
microscope are much larger
than the actual size of the
specimen so it is helpful to
know how much larger the
image is than the actual
specimen.

• The magnification should

always be shown on a
drawing or photograph.
    
• Choose and measure an obvious
length and measure it on the drawing.
Measure the same length on the
actual specimen. Calculate the
magnification using the following
formula:

• Magnification =
size of image
size of specimen

• Scale bars are usually added to a

micrograph or drawing to show the
actual size of the structures.

• Questions on Page 6
Magnification =
Size of image (ruler)/
Actual size (given)

1cm = 10 mm

1mm = 1000 um

Actual size of hen

egg = 50 mm wide
Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio
as a factor limiting cell size.

• With increasing size of a

cell, less and less of the
cytoplasm has access to
the cell surface for
exchange.
•   The smaller the cell is,
the more quickly and
easily can materials be
exchanged between the
cytoplasm and the
environment.
• When a cell reaches a
maximum size, cell
growth stops, and the cell
can now divide.
 Why are cells so small?
• As a cell grows, its volume
increases much faster than
its surface area does.
• The surface area to volume
ratio decreases.

• If a cell were to become very

large, the volume increases
much more than the surface
area, and so not enough
materials would be able to
enter quickly enough to meet
the cell’s needs.
Small cells can exchange substances more readily than large cells, because
small objects have a higher surface area to volume ratio.
 Function of Volume Function of Surface Area
• Rate of heat production • Rate of exchange of
• Rate of waste production materials
• Rate of resource • Rate of exchange of heat
consumption
 Multicellular organisms show emergent
properties.
• Emergent properties can be defined as properties where the
whole is more than the sum of their parts. In other words,
multicellular organisms can achieve more than the sum of
what each cell could accomplish individually.
 A good example of emergent properties in a multicellular organism
would be the human brain. On their own, individual neurons (nerve
cells) are not capable of thought but it is the interactions of all neurons
that allow the brain to think.
 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out
specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.

• Cells of multicellular organism

develop differently through a process
called differentiation. This process
is directed by the genes of the cells.
All the cells contain the same genes
but the cell only uses the ones it needs
to follow its path of development.

• For example, the cells in your toes

contain the genetic information in the
form of genes to make the pigment
colors for your eyes but the cell does
Multicellular organisms consist of
not express those genes.
many cells that are specialized to
carry out certain functions.
• Through the process of differentiation
cells develop into blood cells, nerve
cells, muscle cells etc.
 Define Differentiation
• Differentiation is a process that occurs in the cells of
multicellular organisms where cells develop in different ways
and become specialized for one particular function.

• Cells do not just have genes with the instructions that they
need; they have genes to specialize in every possible way.
Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not
others in a cell’s genome.
State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have
the ability to differentiate along different pathways.

• Stem cells are

unspecialized cells that
have the ability to divide or
self renew by cell division
and to differentiate.

• Sources of stem cells are

human embryos, umbilical
cord of a new born baby,
and some can be found in
the adult body mostly in
the bone marrow.
https://youtu.be/rxa2Vpqn4hU
• Stem cells are different from
other cells in two main ways:

o They are unspecialized or what is

known as totipotent because they
can become any type of cell due to
the fact that they have not
differentiated yet.

o Stem cells are self-sustaining and

they can perform mitotic cell
division for long periods of time.
• The potency of a cell specifies its differentiation potential, or
potential to differentiate into different cell types.

• Totipotency is the ability of a single cell to divide and

produce all the differentiated cells in an organism. Totipotent
cells include spores and zygotes.

• Pluripotent stem cells can give rise to any fetal or adult cell
type. However, alone they cannot develop into a fetal or adult
animal because they lack the potential to contribute to extra-
embryonic tissue, such as the placenta.
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/stem
cells/scintro/
 Therapeutic Uses of Stem Cells

A non-therapeutic use of stem cells could be to produce large

quantities of striated muscle tissue, or meat, for human
consumption.
Stargardt’s Disease
• http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kn3lgsk
KA08

• Stargardt disease is an eye disease

that causes vision loss in children and
young adults. It is an inherited
disease, meaning it is passed on to
children from their parents.

• Stargardt disease is a form of macular

degeneration. Macular degeneration
is when part of the retina that gives
you central vision, called the macula,
breaks down.
• In people with Stargardt disease,
special light-sensing cells in the
macula, called photoreceptors,
die off.

• Central, or detailed, vision

becomes blurry or has dark
areas. It may also be difficult to
see colors well.

• The loss of vision can be severe

enough for the person to be
registered as blind.
• Researchers have developed methods for making embryonic
stem cells develop into retina cells.
Leukemia
 Leukemia
• http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/tech/stemcells/sctoday/

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yESmOCuTLDA
The Stem Cell Debate
 Newer breakthroughs may bring
this debate to an end. In 2006
scientists learned how to stimulate
a patient's own cells to behave like
embryonic stem cells. These cells
are reducing the need for human
embryos in research and opening
up exciting new possibilities for
stem cell therapies.
• The difference between a stem cell and a differentiated cell is
reflected in the cells' DNA. In a stem cell, the DNA is
arranged loosely, with its genes ready to spring into action.

• As signals enter the cell and differentiation begins, genes that

will not be needed are shut down, and genes that will be
required for a specialized function remain open and active.
• Scientists noticed a small number of genes that were active
only in stem cells and not in differentiated cells. Introducing
just 4 of these genes back into differentiated cells made them
behave like stem cells. The genes appear to be remodeling the
cells' DNA, unlocking the genes that were shut down during
differentiation.

• The scientists named these cells "induced pluripotent stem

cells," or iPS cells. In 2012, they won the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine for their work.
Sources of stem cells and the ethics of using them page 15
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of the use of adult stem cells. ( 3 marks)
Advantages:
a. «adult stem cells» can divide «endlessly» / can differentiate 
b. «adult stem cells» can be used to repair/regenerate «tissues» 
c. fewer ethical objections «than with embryonic stem cells» 
d. adults can give «informed» consent for use of their stem cells 
e. adult source is not killed / «source» would not have grown into new human / no death of
embryos used to provide stem cells 
f. no rejection problems / patient’s own cells used 
g. less chance of cancer/«malignant» tumor development «than from embryonic stem
cells» 
h. most tissues in adults contain some stem cells

Disadvantages:
i. difficult to obtain/collect/find in adult body/very few available 
j. some «adult» tissues contain few/no stem cells 
k. «adult stem cells» differentiate into fewer cell types «than embryonic cells» /OWTTE
Write an essay discussing the benefits and
disadvantages for using stem cells.
Use your research from last lesson to write out
the essay. Complete the reflection section of the
Stem Cells Sheet.

Upload to Managebac the following:

• Completed Stem Cell Sheet Questions, with

your reflections and research.

• Essay
Stand in the front of the classroom and
consider this question.
Outline the use of human embryonic stem cells
(hESC) to treat Stargardt’s disease. 2 marks
1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells
• Developments in scientific research follow improvements in
apparatus  The invention of the electron microscope led to a
greater understanding of the cell structure.

• Light microscopes cannot produce clear images of structures

smaller than 0.2 micrometers. However, many biological
structures are smaller than this (membranes are 0.01 um
thick), and so they were only discovered after the development
of the electron microscope.
• Electron microscopes can produce images of structures as small
as 0.001 um – 200 times smaller than with light microscopes.

• This is because electron microscopes have a much higher

resolution than light microscopes.

Making the separate parts of an object distinguishable by eye is called

resolution.

• Light has a much larger wavelength than electrons, which is

what is responsible for this difference.
 Resolution
Millimeters (mm) Micrometers (um) Nanometers (nm)
Unaided Eyes 0.1 100 100,000
Light Microscopes 0.0002 0.2 200
Electron 0.000001 0.001 1
Microscopes
 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of
Escherichia coli (E. coli)  Prokaryote

• The diagram should

show the cell wall,
plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, pili, flagella,
ribosomes and nucleoid
(region containing naked
DNA).
Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
• Prokaryotes: Organisms that have no membrane bound
organelles (no nucleus, mitochondria, ER, golgi)

• Eukaryotes : Organisms that have membrane bound

organelles.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Cell Wall
• All prokaryotic cells are
surrounded by a cell wall
composed of peptidoglycan
(not cellulose).
(Polymer consisting of sugars and
amino acids.)

• The cell wall protects the

cell, gives the cell it’s shape,
prevents it from rupturing
and serves as an anchorage
point for the flagellum.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Plasma Membrane
 The plasma membrane is
located inside of the cell wall in
prokaryotes.

 It is composed of phospholipid
molecules and is similar in
composition and function to the
cell membrane of eukaryotes.

 The plasma membrane is a

partially permeable membrane
that controls what enters and
leaves the cell.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a water based
fluid that fills up the interior of
the cell.

• Organelles such as ribosomes are

found floating in the cytoplasm.

• The cytoplasm contains many

dissolved substances along with
enzymes needed for metabolism.

• The metabolic chemical reactions

of prokaryotes are carried out in
the cytoplasm.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Pili
• Pili are long protein filaments
that extend from the cell wall
of prokaryotes.

• These are used for cell to cell

adhesion during the process of
conjugation (when
prokaryotes exchange genetic
information).

• They are also used for cell to

cell adhesion when bacteria are
forming aggregations of cells
(chains).
Electron Micrograph of Escherichia coli with a
Conjugation Pilus
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Flagella / flagellum (singular)
• Prokaryotes may contain one or
more flagella, long filamentous
structures with a corkscrew
shape.

• These are used in locomotion of

the cell and can allow a cell to
move from one area to another.

• Their base is embedded in the

cell wall.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Ribosomes (have no
membrane)
• Ribosomes are organelles
that perform protein
synthesis.

• The ribosomes in
prokaryotes are free
floating in the cytoplasm
and are smaller than those
of eukaryotic cells (70s)
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Nucleoid
• The nucleoid is a region of the
cytoplasm that contains the
prokaryotic DNA. (Usually one
DNA molecule.)

• Prokaryotes do not have an

organized nucleus so their
genetic material is in contact
with the cytoplasm.

• The prokaryotic DNA is

circular, and also referred to as
naked DNA because it is not
associated with any proteins
(unlike eukaryotic DNA).
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Mesosome / FYI

• Mesosomes are folded

invaginations in the plasma
membrane of bacteria that are
produced by the chemical fixation
techniques used to prepare
samples for electron microscopy.

• Although several functions were

proposed for these structures in
the 1960s, they were recognized
as artifacts by the late 1970s and
are no longer considered to be
part of the normal structure of
bacterial cells.
Identify structures in electron micrographs
of E. coli

The nucleoid is
stained less darkly, as
it has less ribosomes
and proteins.
Practice
drawing
this in
your
notebooks:
The structure of prokaryotic cells has been investigated using electron
microscopy. Draw a labelled diagram to show prokaryotic cell
structure. ( 4 marks)
• a. cell wall — a uniformly thick wall ✔
• b. pili — hair-like structures connected to cell wall
OR
flagellum — at one end only, longer than pili ✔
• c. plasma/cell membrane — represented by a continuous single
line ✔
May be labelled as the innermost wall line
• d. «70S» ribosomes — drawn as small discrete dots not circles ✔
• e. naked DNA/nucleoid — region with DNA not enclosed in
membrane ✔
• f. cytoplasm — the non-structural material within the cell ✔ 
State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary
fission.
• Binary fission is the
method by which bacteria
reproduce.
• The circular DNA molecule
is replicated (copied) and
then the cell splits into two
identical cells, each
containing an exact copy of
the original cell's DNA.
• Binary fission is a form of
asexual reproduction (one
parent producing two
identical offspring)
Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission
• http://www.classzone.com/books/hs/ca/sc/bio_07/animated_bi
ology/bio_ch05_0149_ab_fission.html
 Prokaryotic Structures
and Functions
• http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/cell
s/identify.html
 Functions of Eukaryotic
Organelles
• https://quizlet.com/12849903/flashcards

• http://
www.classtools.net/widgets/quiz_19/eukaryote_cells_WbzPy.
htm
 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of
eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs

• The diagram should show

free ribosomes, rough
endoplasmic reticulum,
lysosomes, golgi apparatus,
mitochondrion and nucleus.

• Make sure your plasma

membrane is a double
membrane and that you show
the cristae of the
mitochondria.
 Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are small,
spherical organelles,
responsible for building
proteins.

• Ribosomes have no
membranes.

One large and one small subunit

come together to make a
functioning ribosome.
Ribosomes
• Some ribosomes are free
within the cytoplasm, while
others are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Free ribosomes: very small
structures (80S) that carry out
protein synthesis, releasing
proteins into the cytoplasm to be
used in the cell.

• Free ribosomes are found floating

in the cytoplasm while others are
found attached to the rough ER.

• Ribosomes are composed of

rRNA and protein, and are larger
in eukaryotic cells than prokaryotic
cells.

• Eukaryotic ribosomes are

composed of two subunits.
 Lysosome
• Single membrane bound
organelles produced by the Golgi
apparatus that contain strong
hydrolytic enzymes which break
down biological molecules.

• They can contain up to 40 different

enzymes and can also break down
worn out cell parts that are no
longer functioning properly.

• Lysosomes are involved in

breaking down materials brought
into a cell via phagocytosis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
(ER)
• The ER is a system of
flattened membrane sacs
called cisternae.
• It is found adjacent to the
nucleus.
• It acts as a path along
which molecules move
from one part of the cell
to another.
• The number of ER in a
cell varies based on the
cell’s activity.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
(ER)
There are two types of ER:
1) Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (rER)

2) Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (sER)
 Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
• The rER is covered with
ribosomes.

• The rER and ribosomes

produce proteins.

• The proteins produced

are either:
o exported from the cell
o Inserted into one of the cell’s
membranes.
o Become lysosomes
 Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum
• Proteins produced by the
rER are released into
little sacs (vesicles),
which bud off and are
moved to the Golgi
apparatus.
 Golgi Apparatus
• Composed of many flattened sacs called
cisternae which are stacked on top of each
other and is normally located between the ER
and plasma membrane.

• The cisternae differ from those of the rER by

being shorter, curved, not having ribosomes
attached, and having many vesicles nearby.

• The Golgi apparatus collects, packages,

modifies and distributes materials
throughout the cell. It is located close to the
ER to receive products transported by the ER
and close to the plasma membrane so it can
discharge materials needed outside the cell.

• It is found in high numbers in cell that

produce and secrete substances (i.e. pancreas
cells).
 Mitochondrion
• Very large, double membrane bound rod-
shaped organelles found scattered in the
cytoplasm and contain their own DNA.

• Their outer membrane is smooth while their

inner membrane is highly folded into cristae
which increase the surface area of the inner
mitochondria for aerobic cellular respiration,
the main function of the mitochondria.

• The fluid inside the mitochondria is called the

matrix.

• Mitochondria also have their own

ribosomes (70S) in the matrix.

• Mitochondria are found in high numbers in

cells that have high energy needs (i.e. muscle
cells).
• How effective would a
mitochondrion be without
cristae?

With less surface area to

carry out its reactions, the
mitochondrion would be
much less efficient. Thus
all life processes that
require energy would
slow down.
 Nucleus
• Eukaryotic DNA is housed inside
the double membrane or
nuclear envelop of the nucleus.

• The double membrane allows the

DNA to remain separate from the
rest of the cell and carry out its
functions without interference
from the other parts of the cell.

• The nuclear membrane contains

Uncoiled chromosomes
pores that allows for
containing DNA
communication with the rest of wrapped around proteins
the cell.
 Nucleus
• DNA is contained in the form of
chromosomes (chromatin) within
the nucleus. The nucleus is
normally located in the center of
the eukaryotic cell but is often
pushed to the side in plant cells
due to the large vacuole.

• Most cells have one nucleus but

some have multiple nuclei while
others have none (i.e. red blood
cells). If there is no nucleus the
cell cannot reproduce.

• Most nuclei often have a

nucleolus a dark area inside the
nucleus where ribosomes are
manufactured.
Nuclei in Skeletal Muscle Fibers
 Microtubules and
Centrioles
• Microtubules are cylindrical
fibers responsible for moving
chromosomes during cell
division.

• Animal cells have centrioles

( groups of nine triple
microtubules) which form an
anchor point for microtubules
during cell division.
Centrosome: Made
up of two centrioles.

Centrioles are
arranged
perpendicularly at
the poles of a cell
during cellular
division and are
responsible for the
production of
microtubules
(spindle fibers)
 Cilia and Flagella
• Whip-like structures projecting
from the cell surface.
• Made up of a ring of nine
double microtubules plus two
central ones.
• Flagella are larger than cilia,
and usually only one is present
(sperm).
• Cilia are smaller and many are
present. http://www.dnatube.com/video/5967/Fl
agella-and-Cilia
• Both can be used for movement.
• Cilia can also be used to create a
current in the fluid next to the
cell.
Identify the structures in electron micrographs
Cisternae of golgi are
not as long as those in
the rER, are often
curved, and often have
Golgi
vesicles near by.
 Lysosomes have large

RER
Liver Cell amounts of proteins
making them stain
dense.

Golgi

mitochondria nucleus
• http://
www.ncsu.edu/project/bio183de/Lab/cells_microscopes/anima
lTEMs/liver_cell.html
 Outline the functions of rough endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (3 marks)
• a. ribosomes on RER synthesize/produce
polypeptides/proteins ✔
• b. proteins from RER for secretion/export/use outside cell/for
lysosomes ✔
• c. Golgi alters/modifies proteins/example of modification ✔
• d. vesicles budded off Golgi transport proteins «to plasma
membrane»
OR
exocytosis/secretion of proteins in vesicles from the Golgi ✔

Accept “for use inside and outside the cell” for mpb.
Draw and Label an
Animal Cell.
 Number of Membranes
Surrounding Organelles
Organelle Number of Membranes Type of Cell
Ribosome 0 Prokaryotes (70S) and
Eukaryotes (80S)
Lysosomes 1 Eukaryotes
Rough Endoplasmic 1 Eukaryotes
Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus 1 Eukaryotes

Mitochondrion 2 Eukaryotes

Nucleus 2 Eukaryotes
 Cell Wall
• Made out cellulose
(polymer of B glucose)

• Gives the cell wall it’s

tensile strength (ability to
stretch without tearing),
supporting the cell structure.
 Central Vacuole
• The central vacuole forms
as many small vacuoles
fuse together.

• The central vacuole can

make up 90 % of the plant
cell’s volume.

• The central vacuole pushes

the other cell organelles
into a thin layer against the
plasma membrane.
Vacuoles and Vesicles FYI
• Many plant cells have large vacuoles that occupy more than
half of the cell volume.

• Some animals absorb foods from outside and digest them in

vacuoles.

• Some unicellular organisms use vacuoles to expel excess

water.

• Vesicles are very small vacuoles used to transport materials

inside the cell.
 Chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are covered by a
double membrane.
• Each chloroplast contains a system
of flattened membranous sacs
called thylakoids.

• Thylakoids contain the green

pigment chlorophyll, which is
responsible for absorbing light
energy.

• Location for photosynthesis.

• May contain starch grains as a

result of rapid photosynthesis.
 Draw a labelled diagram of a eukaryotic
plant cell as seen in an electron micrograph.
( 4 marks)
• Cell wall shown with two continuous lines to indicate the
thickness
• Plasma membrane/cell membrane shown as a single continuous
line
• Accept inner line of wall as membrane if clearly labelled.
• Nuclear membrane/nucleus shown with double membrane and
nuclear pores
• Vacuole «membrane»/tonoplast shown as a single continuous line
• Chloroplast/plastid shown with a double line to indicate the
envelope and thylakoids/grana
• Mitochondrion shown with double membrane/cristae
Differences between plant and
animal cells.
Compare and contrast between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
FEATURE PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Genetic material Contain a naked loop of DNA. Contain four or more
(nucleoid) chromosomes consisting of
strands of DNA associated with
histone proteins.
Location of genetic material Naked DNA found in region of Located inside the double
the cytoplasm called nucleoid. membrane of the nucleus;
sometimes referred to as the
nuclear envelope.

Mitochondria Prokaryotes do not contain Eukaryotic cells all contain

mitochondria.. hundreds of mitochondria.

Ribosomes Ribosomes are smaller in Ribosomes are larger in

prokaryote cells. (70S) eukaryote cells. (80S)

Membrane bound organelles None are present. Eukaryotic cells contain

or internal membranes several membrane bound
organelles such as ER, Golgi
apparatus and lysosomes.

Size Measure less than 10 Measure more than 10

micrometers. micrometers.
Ribosomes – 70 S and 80 S
• Prokaryotic ribosomes are around 20 nm in diameter.
Eukaryotic ribosomes are between 25 and 30 nm.
• A Svedberg (S) is a unit used for sedimentation coefficients. It
characterizes the behaviour of a particle type in sedimentation
processes, notably centrifugation.
• The svedberg is technically a measure of time, and is defined
as exactly 10-13 second.
• Bigger particles tend to sediment faster and thus have higher
svedberg values.
Interpreting the structure of eukaryotic cells – Exocrine glands of
the pancreas and palisade mesophyll cells
Page 24
1.3 Membrane Structure
10 nm thick

Amphipathic:
Partially
hydrophilic and
partially
hydrophobic
(eg.
Phospholipids)
The structure of a phospholipid
 02_20_lipid
membranes.jpg
 Two structures formed by self-assembly of phospholipids in aqueous environments

• In the 1920s, Gorter and

Grendel extracted
phospholipids from the plasma
membranes of red blood cells.

• They calculated that the area

that the phospholipids occupied
when arranged in a single layer
was twice as large as the area
of the plasma membrane.

• They deduced that the

membrane contained a bilayer
of phospholipids.
• http://www.susanahalpine.com/anim/Life/memb.htm
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of phospholipids
help maintain the structure of cell membranes
• When phospholipids are arranged in
water, they become arranged in
double layers, with their heads facing
outwards, and their tails facing
inwards.
• This arrangement, a phospholipid
bilayer, is the bases of membranes in
cells.
• It is a very stable structure, because:
i. bonds form between phosphate heads and the
surrounding water. (both are polar)
ii. the tails form hydrophobic interactions (weak
bonds on their own, but very strong in huge
numbers)
Different models of membrane structure

Membranes contain proteins,

and two different models have
been proposed for how they
could fit in to the phospholipid
bilayer.
 The Davson-Danieilli Model
• This layer proposed layers of
protein adjacent to the phospholipid
bilayer.

• Electron micrographs showed

membranes as two dark lines with a
lighter band between. Proteins
appear dark in electron micrographs
while phospholipids appear light,
so this appearance fit the model.

• Problems with the Davson-Danielli

Model page 27
Evidence for and against the Davson-Danielli Model of
membrane structure (page 28)
 The Singer and Nicolson Model
• They proposed that proteins
occupy a variety of
positions in the membrane.
• Peripheral proteins are
attached to the inner or
outer surface of the
membrane.
• Integral proteins are
embedded in the
phospholipid bilayer, where
in some cases, parts are
protruding on one end or
both.
 Fluid Mosaic Model
• The structure of the plasma
membrane is described to be a
fluid mosaic.

• Why do you think these two

words are used to describe the
cell membrane?
 Fluid Mosaic Model
• The plasma membrane is described as a mosaic, as it is made
up of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins.

• The phospholipid layer behaves more like a fluid than it

behaves like a solid.

• The membrane is flexible, and the lipids and proteins can

move laterally within the bilayer.
 Membrane Proteins
• Proteins found within the
phospholipid bilayer
could be:
1. Integral Proteins
Embedded throughout
the entire membrane
2. Peripheral Proteins
Lie on only one side of
the membrane
 Integral Proteins
• Typically a trans-membrane
protein with hydrophilic regions
that completely spans the
hydrophobic interior of the
membrane.

• These proteins control the entry

and exit of specific molecules
from the cell.

• The hydrophobic and hydrophilic

regions helps keep them in place in
the membrane.
 Peripheral Proteins
• A protein appendage
loosely bound to the surface
of a membrane and not
embedded in the lipid
bilayer.

• The protein molecules are

not fixed in one spot of the
membrane and they actually
float in the fluid
phospholipid bilayer or are
attached to an integral
protein.
 Glycoproteins
• A glycoprotein is a
membrane protein that
is covalently attached to
a carbohydrate.

• They are used for cell to

cell recognition.
Drawing Membranes – page 31
 Functions of Membrane Proteins

1. Hormone binding sites

(receptors):

A site exposed on the

outside of the
membrane allows one
specific hormone to
bind based on shape.
A signal is then
transmitted to the inside
of the cell.
 Functions of Membrane Proteins

2. Immobilized enzymes:

Enzymes located in
membranes catalyze
reactions outside the cell.

For example, in the small

intestines.

Grouped so that a
metabolic pathway may
occur.
 Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Cell adhesion:

Proteins from adjacent

cells may hook together to
provide either permanent or
temporary connections.

This forms junctions referred

to as gap junctions and tight
junctions.
Tight Junction Gap Junction
 Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Cell-to-cell
communication

Receptors for
neurotransmitters at
synapses
 Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Channels for passive
transport

Channels are passages

through the center of
membrane proteins.
Each channel allows one
specific substance to pass
through from high
concentration to low
concentration.
 Functions of Membrane Proteins
• Pumps for active
transport:

Pumps release energy

from ATP and use it to
move specific substances
across the plasma
membrane. The energy
is used to change the
shape of the protein.
 Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes

• Cholesterol is largely
hydrophobic. But it also
has one polar group, a
hydroxyl.
• Amphipathic: Both
hydrophilic and
hydrophobic.
• Cholesterol molecules
are therefore positioned
between phospholipids in
the membrane.
• Cholesterol helps maintain membrane
fluidity:
1. They are rigid preventing membranes
from being too fluid.

(If they were too fluid, they would be less able

to control what substances pass through.)

http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/biol
2. Prevent phospholipids from becoming too ogy/MembranePage/index2.ht
closely compact at low temperatures, ml
keeping the membrane fluid.

(If they were not fluid enough, the movement

of the cell and substances within it would be
restricted.)
 1.4 Membrane Transport
Membrane transport is the process of materials moving
through the plasma membrane.
• Note:
o Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be converted into different forms.
o Energy is released when ATP is broken down.
o ATP is produced as a result of respiration (breaking down glucose).
 Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion,
facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport

• Diffusion is the simplest type of passive transport.

• It is the movement of molecules from a region of high

concentration, to a region of low concentration (down a
concentration gradient)
Passive transport is always down a
concentration gradient.
Mc Graw Hill Animation -
Diffusion
• http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_vi
ew0/chapter2/animation__how_diffusion_works.html
Diffusion results in the molecules being in
a state of equilibrium – The concentration
of the molecules will be the same
throughout the space the molecules
occupy.
 True or False:
• These molecules are in
equilibrium, and so are no longer
moving.

• FALSE
• Molecules are always moving.
Because there is an equal
concentration of molecules
everywhere, molecules are just
as likely to move in one
direction as any other.
• The random movement in all
directions maintains equilibrium.
 Cell Transport – Simple Diffusion
• What do you know about the
plasma membrane?
o It is made up of phospholipids and proteins
o It is semi-permeable

• Some molecules can enter the

plasma membrane, while others
cannot.

• If a molecule can pass through

the membrane, then it will
diffuse from an area of high
concentration on one side of the
membrane, to a region of low
concentration on the other side
of the membrane.
• The diffusion of a molecule
across a membrane depends
on:
1. The size of the molecule
(A large molecule cannot fit through
the membrane.)
2. The chemical nature of the particle
(The membrane is mostly
hydrophobic. Other non-polar
(hydrophobic) substances can pass
through the plasma membrane.)
• Which of the following
molecules can pass through
a plasma membrane by
simple diffusion?

• Steroids
( Hydrophobic Molecule /
Large)

• Glucose (Polar / Large

Molecule)

• O2 (Small Molecule / Polar)

Data-based Question page 36
 Facilitated Diffusion
• A passive transport.

• Process used by molecules that cannot readily move through

the plasma membrane, even when there is a concentration
gradient.

• What types of molecules use facilitated diffusion?

• Molecules that are hydrophilic (polar)
• Molecules that are too large to pass through the pores in the membrane.
• The movement of these kinds of molecules in facilitated
diffusion is assisted by specific proteins in the membrane.

• These proteins are called channel proteins.

• Channel proteins move molecules down their concentration

gradients across the cell membrane. This needs no energy.
• A molecule like glucose binds to
a specific channel protein.

• The channel protein changes

shape, and shields the molecule
from the hydrophobic interior of
the lipid bilayer.

• The molecule is released on the

other side, and the channel
protein returns to its original
shape.

• The channel protein is now free

to bind to another glucose
molecule.
1. Facilitated diffusion can help substances move either into or
out of the cell, depending on the concentration gradient.

2. The channel proteins involved in facilitated diffusion are

each specific for one type of molecule.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GU1-n8ftncM
What are the differences between simple diffusion
and facilitated diffusion?
Facilitated diffusion of potassium in axons – pages 40 and 41
 Osmosis
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rw_yUcGt-0U
 A solution has two main
parts:
1. Solvent
The material present in a greater
amount.

2. Solute
The material
present in the
smaller amount.
 • Solutes can diffuse.
(Sugar diffusing through
water)

• It is also possible for solvent

molecules to diffuse.

What would be the solutes and solvents in the cell?

Solute: Organic and Inorganic Compounds
Solvent: Water
 Definition of Osmosis
• The process by which
water molecules diffuse
across a cell membrane,
from an area of lower
solute concentration to
an area of higher solute
concentration is
osmosis.

• Osmosis is the passive

transport of water.
• When a polar solute is
added to water, the water
interacts with the solute,
reducing the number of free
water molecules.

• Which container has a lower

concentration of solutes?
• These two beakers are
connected and separated
with a semi-permeable
membrane.
• The water molecules
would flow from the
container with a lower
solute concentration (on
the left) to a higher solute
concentration (on the
right).
• http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/RITCHISO/osmosis3.gif
Aquaporins

Water can leak through

membranes, but since water is
polar, it can move more rapidly
through water channels known
as aquaporins.
How would water move?
 Direction of Osmosis
• Three words are used when
describing the direction of
osmosis:

o Hypotonic: The concentration of

solutes outside the cell are lower than
the concentration in the cytoplasm.

o How would water flow?

Water flows into the cell until
equilibrium is reached.
• Three words are used when
describing the direction of
osmosis:

o Hypertonic: The concentration of

solutes outside the cell is higher than
the concentration in the cytoplasm.

o How would water flow?

Water flows out of the cell until
equilibrium is reached.
• Three words are used when
describing the direction of
osmosis:

o Isotonic: The concentrations of the

solutes outside and inside the cell are
equal.

o How would water flow?

Water flows in and out of the
cell at equal rates, so there is no net
movement of water.
• A simple rule to remember is:

Salt Sucks
How do red blood cells deal with osmosis?
• Red Blood Cell in a Hypertonic Solution:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IRQLRO3dIp8

• Osmosis in Red Onion Cells:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nHWUAdkYq4Q
 Preventing osmosis in excised tissues and organs
• Both hypertonic and hypotonic solutions can damage animal
cells.
• It is therefore important for any human tissue or organ to be
bathed in an isotonic solution during medical procedures.
• Sodium chloride with an osmolarity of 30 milliOsmoles is
used (known as normal saline).
• Used in:
o Introduced in patients blood via IV
o Rinse wounds and skin abrasions
o Keep damaged skin moistened prior to skin grafts
o Basis for eye drops
o Frozen and used for packing donor organs for transplant operations
 Words to know:
• Turgor Pressure:
The pressure that water molecules exert against the cell
wall that is caused by the movement of water into the cell.
• Plasmolysis:
The shrinking of the cell membrane of a plant cell in a
hypertonic solution in response to the loss of water by
osmosis.
• Cytolysis:
The bursting of a cell.
Data-based question: Osmosis in Plant Tissues
• What is meant by active transport?
The movement of chemical substances, across the cell
membrane, against a concentration gradient, using energy
from the cell and protein pumps.
Active transport occurs against
a concentration gradient
 Pump Proteins: Globular
Proteins
• Membrane proteins sometimes
function in active transport,
and are known as pumps.

• Molecules bind to a specific

carrier. The protein changes
shape and transfers the
molecule to the other side of
the membrane.

• In active transport, the cell

membrane pump requires
energy released by the
breakdown of ATP.
ATP: Adenosine
TriPhosphate
• An adenine-containing
nucleoside triphosphate that
releases free energy when
its phosphate bonds are
broken down.

• This energy is used to

drive endergonic reactions
in cells.
• Protein pumps are specific to particular molecules.

• The pump either transports one specific molecule in one

direction, or transports two substances in opposite directions.

• (Sometimes two molecules are transported in the same

direction.)
Sodium / Potassium
Pump
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRM2_O5gwOM
Examples of Active
Transport
• Plant roots actively uptake
ions from the soil.
 Bulk flow using vesicles
• What is a vesicle?
A small sac of membrane
with a droplet of fluid
inside.

• Vesicles are usually

spherical.
• Vesicles are fused from
larger pieces of
membranes.

• A small region of a
membrane is pulled from
the rest of the membrane
and is pinched off.

• This requires energy in

the form of ATP.
 Endocytosis
• The process by which
cells ingest external fluid
and large particles
(including other cells).
• The particles are
enclosed by a portion of
the cell’s membrane,
which folds into itself
and forms a pouch. The
pouch pinches off from
the membrane and
becomes a vesicle.
• Vesicles that entered the
cell by endocytosis could
fuse with lysosomes, and
their contents could be
digested by the enzymes.

• http://highered.mcgraw-h
ill.com/sites/0072495855
/student_view0/chapter2/
animation__how_the_so
dium_potassium_pump_
works.html
• There are two main types of
endocytosis:

1. Pinocytosis ( Transport of solutes or

fluids)
2. Phagocytosis ( Movement of large
particles or whole cells)

Phagocytes are cells that ingest

bacteria or viruses that invade the
body. Lysosomes then fuse with the
vesicles and destroy the bacteria or
virus before they can harm the
organism.
 Exocytosis
• The process by which a
substance is released
from the cell through a
vesicle that transports the
substance to the cell
surface, and fuses with
the membrane to let
substances out of the cell.

• The reverse of
endocytosis.
• Cells use exocytosis to
remove large particles
such as proteins or waste
products that would
damage the cell if they
were released into the
cytoplasm.

• http://www.stanford.edu/
group/Urchin/GIFS/exoc
yt.gif
• http://highered.mcgraw-h
ill.com/olcweb/cgi/plugi
npop.cgi?it=swf::535::53
 Describe the role of the fluidity of the plasma membrane
during endocytosis and exocytosis.

• Exocytosis: internal
vesicles will fuse with
the plasma membrane
and the contents of the
vesicle are released into
the external environment
of the cell. The cell can
secrete substances they
produced this way or
excrete waste products.
 .
• The phospholipid molecules which make up the plasma
membrane are in a fluid state which allows them to
change shape.

• This fluidity of the plasma membrane allows it to form

vesicles that can be pinched off or ones that can fuse
with it.

• During endocytosis and exocytosis these vesicles are

formed without any damage to the plasma membrane.
Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell
between the RER, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.

• The ribosomes attached

to the RER synthesize
proteins and release them
into the RER.
• The proteins travel
through the RER and are
then released from the
RER in vesicles formed
from the RER
membrane.
• The vesicle travels through the
cytoplasm and delivers the
proteins to the Golgi apparatus
which then modifies the
proteins. The proteins are then
sent off inside a vesicle formed
from the membrane of the
Golgi apparatus and are carried
to the plasma membrane.

• The vesicle fuses with the

plasma membrane and the
contents are released outside
the cell (exocytosis).
• Proteins made to keep within the cell are produced on free
ribosomes.

• Proteins for export are made on the RER, and are surrounded
by vesicles.
Explain how vesicles are used in cells, including the way in which they
form and are reabsorbed. (Total 8 marks)
• A Vesicle is made by pinching off a piece of membrane;
fluidity of membrane allows this;

• vesicles can be used to transport material around inside cells;

proteins are transported in vesicles;

• from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus;

• from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane;

• formation of vesicle from plasma membrane allows material to be taken in;

endocytosis / pinocytosis / phagocytosis is absorption of material using a vesicle;

• fusion of vesicle with plasma membrane allows material to be secreted / passed out;
exocytosis is secretion of material using a vesicle;

• named example of endocytosis or exocytosis; [8]

Outline the process of endocytosis. (Total 5 marks)
(Annotated diagram illustrating the process may be used to gain some or all the marks.)

• the mechanism whereby cells take in solids and / or solutions;

involves the formation of vesicles;

• infolding of cell membrane;

• called phagocytosis when solids / organisms are engulfed;

• phagocytosis is called feeding in some unicellular organisms;

• called pinocytosis when solutions are taken in (vesicles are much smaller);

• requires energy / active process;

[5]
 Outline the process of exocytosis giving an
example. (5 marks)
• vesicles carry material to plasma membrane;
vesicle fuses with membrane;
(by joining of) phospholipid bilayers;
aided by the fluidity of the membrane;
material released/expelled from the cell;
membrane flattens;
name of example e.g. exocytosis of neurotransmitter / exocrine secretion/
endocrine secretion / hormone secretion / release of cortical granules;
outline of example: (in the presence of calcium), neurotransmitter vesicles
release their contents into the synapse / hormones released from one cell
have an effect on another cell etc.;

• Accept these points if clearly made in an annotated diagram. [4 max] if

no example given. 5 max
 1.5 The Origin of Cells
• Part of the cell theory states that “cells can only be formed by
the division of pre-existing cells”.

• Each of the trillions of cells found in our body formed when a

previous cell divided into two.

• We can trace the origin of cells in the body back to the first
cell – the zygote, which was produced by the fusion of a
sperm cell and an egg cell.
• A cell is a highly complex structure and no natural mechanism
has been suggested for producing cells from simpler subunits.

• No example is known of increases in the number of cells in a

population, organism or tissue without cell division occurring.

• Viruses are produced from simpler subunits but they do not

consist of cells, and they can only be produced inside the host
cells that they have infected.
 Spontaneous Generation and Pasteur’s Experiments

• Evidence from Pasteur’s experiments that spontaneous generat

ion of cells and organisms does not now occur on Earth
. – page 47

• http://
www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/scientif
icmethod.html
 Origin of the first cells
• Unless the cells arrived on Earth from somewhere else in the
universe, the first cells must have arisen from non-living
material.

• It has sometimes been argued that complex structures cannot

arise by evolution, but there is evidence that this can happen in
a series of stages over long periods of time.
Production of carbon compounds such as sugars and
amino acids

• Stanley Miller and Harold

Urey passed steam through a
mixture of methane, hydrogen
and ammonia. The mixture
was thought to be
representative of the
atmosphere of the early Earth.
• Electrical discharges were
used to stimulate lightning.
• They found that amino acids
and other carbon compounds
needed for life were produced.
Assembly of carbon compounds
into polymers
• A possible site for the origin of the first carbon compounds is
around deep-sea vents.

• These are gushing hot water carrying reduced inorganic

chemicals such as iron sulphide.

• These chemicals represent readily accessible supplies of

energy, a source of energy for the assembly of these carbon
compounds into polymers.
 Formation of Membranes
• If phospholipids or other amphipathic carbon compounds were
among the first carbon compounds, they would have naturally
assembled into bilayers.

• These bilayers can readily form vesicles resembling the

plasma membrane of a small cell.

• This would’ve allowed different internal chemistry from that

of the surroundings to develop.
 Development of a mechanism for
inheritance
• Living organsims currently have genes made of DNA and use
enzymes as catalysts.

• To replicate DNA and be able to pass genes on to the

offspring, enzymes are needed.

• Perhaps the initial form of nucleic acid was RNA, which can
store information like DNA and can replicate by itself acting
as a catalyst.
 Endosymbiotic Theory
• http://
www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/organel
les.html

• http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/0_0_0/endosymbiosis_01
• The larger prokaryotes and the smaller aerobically respiring
ones were in a symbiotic relationship in which both of them
benefited (mutualistic relationship).

• The smaller cell would have been supplied with food by the
larger one, while the smaller cell would’ve carried out aerobic
respiration to supply energy efficiently to the larger cell.

• Natural selection therefore favored cells that and developed

this endosymbiotic relationship.
Page 50
 Describe briefly the endosymbiotic theory. (3 marks)

• a. eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes ✔

• b. prokaryotes engulfed other prokaryotes without digesting
them ✔
• c. engulfed aerobic cell/prokaryote became mitochondria ✔
• d. engulfed photosynthetic cell/ prokaryotes became
chloroplasts ✔
• e. these organelles have a double membrane «due to the
engulfing process» ✔
• f. mitochondria/chloroplasts contain DNA/small
ribosomes/70S ribosomes ✔
Describe the origin of eukaryotic cells according to
the endosymbiotic theory. (4 marks)
 Evidence Against the
Endosymbiotic Theory
• There are no common day Prokaryotes that are similar to
Mitochondria or Chloroplasts.

• Discuss the evidence for the endosymbiotic theory

o For: - 70 S ribosomes in both prokaryotes and the organelles
Circular DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts is similar to that of prokaryotes (naked
DNA)
All divide by binary fission
Can produce their own proteins
o Against:
No recent day prokaryotes similar to Mitochondria or chloroplasts.
 1.6 Cell Division

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVCjdNxJreE
Start from 3:30
Stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2),
mitosis and cytokinesis.

• As you will recall from the

cell theory, all cells come
from pre-existing cells.

• All cells go through a cycle

over and over again known as
the cell cycle. The cycle
refers to the events between
one cell division and the next
in a eukaryotic cell.

• It involves interphase and cell

division.
 The Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle outlines and describes how cells behave during
their growth and division stages.

• Once cells reach a certain size they will divide into two
genetically identical daughter cells.

• Why don’t cells continuously grow larger?

• The cell cycle involves two major phases; a growth phase and
a division phase. The largest portion of the cell cycle is
spent in interphase.
 Interphase
• Interphase is an active period in a cell’s life when many
metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis and DNA
replication.

• Interphase is not necessarily a period of preperation for mitosis,

as a cell can remain in interphase indefinitely.

• Interphase is the longest phase in the cell cycle and it includes

three phases; G1 , S, and G2 .
 Interphase
• Interphase is the longest phase in the cell cycle and it includes
three phases; G1 , S, and G2 .

Phases of Major Events

Interphase
G1 Growth of the cell and increase in number of
organelles.
S Replication of chromosomes with copies
remaining attached to one another – (After
mitosis both cells have a complete set of genes.)
G2 Further growth occurs, organelles increase in
number, DNA condenses to form visible
chromosomes, microtubules begin to form.
Overall Cell is performing the tasks appropriate to its
type. For example, a cell of the pancreas may be
actively secreting insulin to lower high glucose
levels in the body.
 Interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic
reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an
increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.

• Interphase is a very active stage and also the longest

phase of the cell cycle. There are many metabolic
reactions occurring including protein synthesis which
includes transcription and translation.

• DNA is also being replicated during the interphase

stage of the cell cycle in preparation for the cell to
divide once it reaches a certain size. Organelles also
increase in number to be divided among the two
daughter cells.
Figure 2 page 52
 DNA Supercoiling
• You will learn that DNA condenses into
chromosomes during mitosis and this
occurs during a process called
supercoiling.

• The DNA will wrap itself around

proteins (histones) which will then group
together and followed by more wrapping
and grouping together.

• In the end a chromosome is produced

which consists of two identical
molecules of DNA known as
chromatids held together in the middle
by a centromere.
Centrosome and Microtubules
• The centrosome, also called the
"microtubule organizing center",
is an area in the cell where
microtubles are produced.

• Within an animal cell

centrosome, there is a pair of
small organelles, the centrioles,
each made up of microtubules.

• Microtubules are hollow rods,

functioning primarily to help
support and shape the cell
 Centrosome and Microtubules
• During animal cell division, the
centrosome divides and the
centrioles replicate (make new
copies). The result is two
centrosomes, each with its own
pair of centrioles.

• The two centrosomes move to

opposite ends of the nucleus, and
from each centrosome,
microtubules grow into a
"spindle" which is responsible for
separating replicated
chromosomes into the two
daughter cells.
 Steps of Mitosis
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g7iAVCLZWuM
The four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase).
• The process of mitosis in the
cell cycle is when the nucleus
of the cell divides and forms
two new genetically identical
nuclei.
• This takes place over the four
phases of mitosis and towards
the end there is a division of the
cytoplasm and all its contents.
• Then the cell begins to form
two separate new daughter
cells, each containing one
nucleus and they are an exact
copy of each other.
 Prophase
• This stage is often
divided into early and late
prophase.
 Early Prophase
• During early prophase the
chromatin (DNA) begins to
condense by super-coiling.

• Spindle fibers begin to form

from the pair of centrioles in
animal cells that begin to move
to opposite poles of the cell.

• The nuclear envelope

surrounding the nucleus begins
to dissolve.
 Late Prophase
• During late prophase, the DNA has
condensed to form dark chromosomes
consisting of two identical sister
chromatids which are very visible.

• The sister chromatids are joined in the

center by a centromere.

• The centrioles have each arrived at

either pole and the spindle fibres
which are composed of microtubules
extend out to the equator (middle) of
the cell.

• The nuclear envelope has now

completely disappeared.
 Metaphase
• During this stage of mitosis, the
spindle fibers attach to the
chromosomes (sister
chromatids) at the centromere.
• The chromosomes are guided
by the spindle fibers to line up
along the equatorial plate in the
cell. One spindle fiber
microtubule from each pole is
attached to each of the sister
chromatids.
• This is the longest phase in
mitosis lasting about 20
minutes.
 Anaphase
• During this phase of mitosis
the spindle fibers begin
pulling the sister chromatids
to opposite poles.
• The chromatids separate
at the centromere and are
pulled toward opposite ends
of the cell as the spindle
fibers shorten.
• This phase is very short
lasting only a few minutes.
 Telophase
• During this phase in mitosis,
the chromosomes have arrived
at each end and a nuclear
membrane begins to form
around them.

• The chromosomes uncoil and

become less dense which
makes them no longer visible.

• The spindle fibers begin to

break down and the process of
cytokinesis begins.
 Cytokinesis
• This involves the division
of the cytoplasm and all
its contents.
• In animal cells a cleavage
furrow starts to develop
while a cell plate begins
to form in a plant cell
which divides the cell
into two new daughter
cells.
 Cytokinesis in Plant and Animal Cells
• In animal cells, the cell membranes on opposite sides of the cell become
pinched-in allowing for the cell to divide. The initial structure that forms
is called a cleavage furrow. The cleavage furrow continues to pinch in,
until the two sides are touching.

• Cytokinesis differs in plant cells. Since the cell wall is inflexible, it

cannot be "pinched in" as is the case of the animal cells.

• In the center of the cell, a structure known as a cell plate begins to grow
and elongate. Once the cell plate has divided the cell into two cells, it will
continue to develop into a new cell wall.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Km2hN7fRhN0

• http://www.biologycorner.com/2009/09/27/teaching-mitosis/
Question Page 54
http://
fdslive.oup.com/www.oup.com/oxed/inter
national/science/ib-bio-images.pdf?region=
international
Mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei.

• During the mitosis the nucleus of the parent cell is divided

equally to produce two daughter cells with identical genetic
information.

• The DNA, referred to as chromosomes during mitosis, was

replicated during interphase of the cell cycle. A cell will
replicate its DNA when it is preparing to divide. This ensures
that each new cell produced during mitosis gets an equal and
identical copy of the cell’s DNA.
Growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual
reproduction involve mitosis .
• Eukaryotic cells use the process of mitosis when identical cells
are required.
• What are some examples of when mitosis can be used?
This can be during growth of an organism, when there has
been tissue damage that needs to be repaired, or when an
organism reproduces asexually.
• This also occurs during embryonic development when the
zygote begins mitotic cell division and the organism begins to
grow and develop.
 Calculating the Mitotic Index

Mitotic Index =

Number of cells in mitosis

Total number of cells
 Cyclins control the cell cycle
• Cyclins are a group of proteins that ensure the tasks of the cell
are performed at the correct time, and that the cell only moves
on to the next stage of the cycle at appropriate times.

• There are four types of cyclins in human cells. Fg 6 page 56

shows how these levels rise and fall during the cell cycle.

• Unless these cyclins reach a threshold concentration, the cell

does not progress to the next stage of the cell cycle.

http://highered.mheducation.com/olcweb/c
gi/pluginpop.cgi?it=swf::535::535::/sites/dl/
free/0072437316/120082/bio34a.swf::
Control%20of%20the%20Cell%20Cycle
 Explain how the cell cycle is controlled. (4 marks)
• a. cell cycle is a sequence of stages / cell cycle is G 1, S, G2 and mitosis
• b. (control of the cell cycle) by cyclins/cyclin
• c. levels of cyclins rise (and fall)/fluctuate during the cell cycle/surge at
different times/have to reach a certain concentration
• d. conditions inside as well as outside the cell affect regulation
• e. four cyclins/different cyclins to enter different stages of/events in the
cell cycle / cyclins regulate the sequence/timing of the cell cycle /
cyclins trigger the next stages
• The idea of different cyclins acting at different phases must be clear.
• f. cyclin-dependent kinases / cyclins bind to kinases and activate them
• g. kinases phosphorylate other proteins
• h. phosphorylated proteins perform specific functions in the cell cycle 
 Tumor Formation and Cancer
• Abnormal groups of cells that develop at any stage of life in
any body part are known as tumors.

• Two types of tumors:

o Benign tumors: Tumor cells adhere to one another and do not invade nearby tissues.
o Malignant tumors: Tumor cells that become detached and move elsewhere in the body
(developing into secondary tumors).
• Cancers are diseases caused by malignant tumors.
• Carcinogens are cancer causing chemicals or agents. Eg.
Viruses, mutagens, and radiation
• Mutations are random changes to the base sequence of genes.
• The few genes that cause cancer after mutating are called
oncogenes. Normally, these oncogenes are responsible for the
control of the cell cycle and cell division. This is why
mutations in them cause uncontrolled cell growth (tumor
formation).
• When a tumor cell has been formed, it divides rapidly to give
two, then four, then eight cells and so on. This group of cells
is called a primary tumor.
• Metastasis is the movement of the cells from a primary tumor
to set up secondary tumors in other parts of the body.

https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=eoWRZbtqB_
s
The correlation between smoking
and the incidence of cancers

Pages 57 and 58
The correlation between smoking
and the incidence of cancers
The correlation between smoking
and the incidence of cancers
Question page 59
• http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/2001/cellcycl
e.html

• Answer on notebook:

Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei.

(8 marks- 12 min)
Explain how mitosis produced two genetically identical
nuclei. (8 marks)
 Cancer
• https://
www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=46Xh
7OFkkCE
 The Cell Cycle and
Cancer – Virtual Lab
• https://
glencoe.mheducation.com/sites/dl/free/0078802849/383933/B
L_23.html