1

1
0
Classes: A Deeper
Look, Part 2

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 2

10.1 Introduction
10.2 const (Constant) Objects and const Member Functions
10.3 Composition: Objects as Members of Classes
10.4 friend Functions and friend Classes
10.5 Using the this Pointer
10.6 Dynamic Memory Management with Operators new and
delete
10.7 static Class Members
10.8 Data Abstraction and Information Hiding
10.8.1 Example: Array Abstract Data Type
10.8.2 Example: String Abstract Data Type
10.8.3 Example: Queue Abstract Data Type
10.9 Container Classes and Iterators
10.10 Proxy Classes
10.11 Wrap-Up

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 3

10.1 Introduction
• const objects and const member functions
– Prevent modifications of objects
– Enforce the principle of least privilege
• Composition
– Classes having objects of other classes as members
• Friendship
– Enables class designer to specify that certain non-member
functions can access the class’s non-public members

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 4

10.1 Introduction (Cont.)

• this pointer
• Dynamic memory management
– new and delete operators
• static class members
• Proxy classes
– Hide implementation details of a class from clients
• Pointer-base strings
– Used in C legacy code from the last two decades

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 5
10.2 const (Constant) Objects and
const Member Functions
• Principle of least privilege
– One of the most fundamental principles of good software
engineering
– Applies to objects, too
• const objects
– Keyword const
– Specifies that an object is not modifiable
– Attempts to modify the object will result in compilation
errors

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 6
10.2 const (Constant) Objects and
const Member Functions (Cont.)
• const member functions
– Only const member function can be called for const
objects
– Member functions declared const are not allowed to
modify the object
– A function is specified as const both in its prototype and
in its definition
– const declarations are not allowed for constructors and
destructors

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 // Fig. 10.1: Time.h
7
2 // Definition of class Time.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in Time.cpp.
4 #ifndef TIME_H
5 #define TIME_H
6 Time.h
7 class Time
8 { (1 of 2)
9 public:
10 Time( int = 0, int = 0, int = 0 ); // default constructor
11
12 // set functions
13 void setTime( int, int, int ); // set time
14 void setHour( int ); // set hour
15 void setMinute( int ); // set minute
16 void setSecond( int ); // set second const keyword to indicate that member
17 function cannot modify the object
18 // get functions (normally declared const)
19 int getHour() const; // return hour
20 int getMinute() const; // return minute
21 int getSecond() const; // return second

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
22
8
23 // print functions (normally declared const)
Outline
24 void printUniversal() const; // print universal time
25 void printStandard(); // print standard time (should be const)
26 private:
27 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format) Time.h
28 int minute; // 0 - 59
29 int second; // 0 - 59 (2 of 2)
30 }; // end class Time
31
32 #endif

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.2: Time.cpp
9
2 // Member-function definitions for class Time.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5
6 #include <iomanip> Time.cpp
7 using std::setfill;
8 using std::setw; (1 of 3)
9
10 #include "Time.h" // include definition of class Time
11
12 // constructor function to initialize private data;
13 // calls member function setTime to set variables;
14 // default values are 0 (see class definition)
15 Time::Time( int hour, int minute, int second )
16 {
17 setTime( hour, minute, second );
18 } // end Time constructor
19
20 // set hour, minute and second values
21 void Time::setTime( int hour, int minute, int second )
22 {
23 setHour( hour );
24 setMinute( minute );
25 setSecond( second );
26 } // end function setTime

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
27
10
28 // set hour value
Outline
29 void Time::setHour( int h )
30 {
31 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0; // validate hour
32 } // end function setHour Time.cpp
33
34 // set minute value (2 of 3)
35 void Time::setMinute( int m )
36 {
37 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0; // validate minute
38 } // end function setMinute
39
40 // set second value
41 void Time::setSecond( int s )
42 {
43 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0; // validate second
44 } // end function setSecond const keyword in function definition,
45 as well as in function prototype
46 // return hour value
47 int Time::getHour() const // get functions should be const
48 {
49 return hour;
50 } // end function getHour

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
51
11
52 // return minute value
Outline
53 int Time::getMinute() const
54 {
55 return minute;
56 } // end function getMinute Time.cpp
57
58 // return second value (3 of 3)
59 int Time::getSecond() const
60 {
61 return second;
62 } // end function getSecond
63
64 // print Time in universal-time format (HH:MM:SS)
65 void Time::printUniversal() const
66 {
67 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << hour << ":"
68 << setw( 2 ) << minute << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second;
69 } // end function printUniversal
70
71 // print Time in standard-time format (HH:MM:SS AM or PM)
72 void Time::printStandard() // note lack of const declaration
73 {
74 cout << ( ( hour == 0 || hour == 12 ) ? 12 : hour % 12 )
75 << ":" << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << minute
76 << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second << ( hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
77 } // end function printStandard

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.3: fig10_03.cpp
12
2 // Attempting to access a const object with non-const member functions.
Outline
3 #include "Time.h" // include Time class definition
4
5 int main()
6 { fig10_03.cpp
7 Time wakeUp( 6, 45, 0 ); // non-constant object
8 const Time noon( 12, 0, 0 ); // constant object (1 of 2)
9
10 // OBJECT MEMBER FUNCTION Cannot invoke non-const member
11 wakeUp.setHour( 18 ); // non-const non-const functions on a const object
12
13 noon.setHour( 12 ); // const non-const
14
15 wakeUp.getHour(); // non-const const
16
17 noon.getMinute(); // const const
18 noon.printUniversal(); // const const
19
20 noon.printStandard(); // const non-const
21 return 0;
22 } // end main

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
Borland C++ command-line compiler error messages:
13
Warning W8037 fig10_03.cpp 13: Non-const function Time::setHour(int)
Outline
called for const object in function main()
Warning W8037 fig10_03.cpp 20: Non-const function Time::printStandard()
called for const object in function main()
fig10_03.cpp
Microsoft Visual C++.NET compiler error messages:
(2 of 2)
C:\cpphtp5_examples\ch10\Fig10_01_03\fig10_03.cpp(13) : error C2662:
'Time::setHour' : cannot convert 'this' pointer from 'const Time' to
'Time &'
Conversion loses qualifiers
C:\cpphtp5_examples\ch10\Fig10_01_03\fig10_03.cpp(20) : error C2662:
'Time::printStandard' : cannot convert 'this' pointer from 'const Time' to
'Time &'
Conversion loses qualifiers

GNU C++ compiler error messages:

fig10_03.cpp:13: error: passing `const Time' as `this' argument of

`void Time::setHour(int)' discards qualifiers
fig10_03.cpp:20: error: passing `const Time' as `this' argument of
`void Time::printStandard()' discards qualifiers

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
 14
10.2 const (Constant) Objects and
const Member Functions (Cont.)
• Member initializer
– Required for initializing
• const data members
• Data members that are references
– Can be used for any data member
• Member initializer list
– Appears between a constructor’s parameter list and the left
brace that begins the constructor’s body
– Separated from the parameter list with a colon (:)
– Each member initializer consists of the data member name
followed by parentheses containing the member’s initial value
– Multiple member initializers are separated by commas
– Executes before the body of the constructor executes

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 // Fig. 10.4: Increment.h
15
2 // Definition of class Increment.
Outline
3 #ifndef INCREMENT_H
4 #define INCREMENT_H
5
6 class Increment Increment.h
7 {
8 public: (1 of 1)
9 Increment( int c = 0, int i = 1 ); // default constructor
10
11 // function addIncrement definition
12 void addIncrement()
13 {
14 count += increment;
15 } // end function addIncrement
16
17 void print() const; // prints count and increment
18 private: const data member that must be
19 int count; initialized using a member initializer
20 const int increment; // const data member
21 }; // end class Increment
22
23 #endif

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.5: Increment.cpp
16
2 // Member-function definitions for class Increment demonstrate using a
Outline
3 // member initializer to initialize a constant of a built-in data type.
4 #include <iostream>
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl; Increment.cpp
7
8 #include "Increment.h" // include definition of class Increment (1 of 1)
9 Colon (:) marks the start of a member initializer list
10 // constructor
11 Increment::Increment( int c, int i ) Member initializer for non-const member count
12 : count( c ), // initializer for non-const member
13 increment( i ) // required initializer for const member
14 {
15 // empty body
Required member initializer for const member increment
16 } // end constructor Increment
17
18 // print count and increment values
19 void Increment::print() const
20 {
21 cout << "count = " << count << ", increment = " << increment << endl;
22 } // end function print

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.6: fig10_06.cpp
17
2 // Program to test class Increment.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5
6 #include "Increment.h" // include definition of class Increment fig10_06.cpp
7
8 int main() (1 of 1)
9 {
10 Increment value( 10, 5 );
11
12 cout << "Before incrementing: ";
13 value.print();
14
15 for ( int j = 1; j <= 3; j++ )
16 {
17 value.addIncrement();
18 cout << "After increment " << j << ": ";
19 value.print();
20 } // end for
21
22 return 0;
23 } // end main

Before incrementing: count = 10, increment = 5

After increment 1: count = 15, increment = 5
After increment 2: count = 20, increment = 5
After increment 3: count = 25, increment = 5

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.7: Increment.h
18
2 // Definition of class Increment.
Outline
3 #ifndef INCREMENT_H
4 #define INCREMENT_H
5
6 class Increment Increment.h
7 {
8 public: (1 of 1)
9 Increment( int c = 0, int i = 1 ); // default constructor
10
11 // function addIncrement definition
12 void addIncrement()
13 {
14 count += increment; Member function declared const to prevent
15 } // end function addIncrement errors in situations where an Increment
16 object is treated as a const object
17 void print() const; // prints count and increment
18 private:
19 int count;
20 const int increment; // const data member
21 }; // end class Increment
22
23 #endif

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.8: Increment.cpp
19
2 // Attempting to initialize a constant of
Outline
3 // a built-in data type with an assignment.
4 #include <iostream>
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl; Increment.cpp
7
8 #include "Increment.h" // include definition of class Increment (1 of 1)
9
10 // constructor; constant member 'increment' is not initialized
11 Increment::Increment( int c, int i )
12 {
13 count = c; // allowed because count is not constant
14 increment = i; // ERROR: Cannot modify a const object
15 } // end constructor Increment
16
17 // print count and increment values It is an error to modify a const data member; data member
18 void Increment::print() const increment must be initialized with a member initializer
19 {
20 cout << "count = " << count << ", increment = " << increment << endl;
21 } // end function print

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.9: fig10_09.cpp
20
2 // Program to test class Increment.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5
6 #include "Increment.h" // include definition of class Increment fig10_09.cpp
7
8 int main() (1 of 2)
9 {
10 Increment value( 10, 5 );
11
12 cout << "Before incrementing: ";
13 value.print();
14
15 for ( int j = 1; j <= 3; j++ )
16 {
17 value.addIncrement();
18 cout << "After increment " << j << ": ";
19 value.print();
20 } // end for
21
22 return 0;
23 } // end main

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
Borland C++ command-line compiler error message: 21
Outline
Error E2024 Increment.cpp 14: Cannot modify a const object in function
Increment::Increment(int,int)

Microsoft Visual C++.NET compiler error messages:

fig10_09.cpp
C:\cpphtp5_examples\ch10\Fig10_07_09\Increment.cpp(12) : error C2758:
'Increment::increment' : must be initialized in constructor (2 of 2)
base/member initializer list
C:\cpphtp5_examples\ch10\Fig10_07_09\Increment.h(20) :
see declaration of 'Increment::increment'
C:\cpphtp5_examples\ch10\Fig10_07_09\Increment.cpp(14) : error C2166:
l-value specifies const object

GNU C++ compiler error messages:

Increment.cpp:12: error: uninitialized member 'Increment::increment' with

'const' type 'const int'
Increment.cpp:14: error: assignment of read-only data-member
`Increment::increment'

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
 22
10.3 Composition: Objects as Members
of Classes
• Composition
– Sometimes referred to as a has-a relationship
– A class can have objects of other classes as members
– Example
• AlarmClock object with a Time object as a member

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 23
10.3 Composition: Objects as Members
of Classes (Cont.)
• Initializing member objects
– Member initializers pass arguments from the object’s
constructor to member-object constructors
– Member objects are constructed in the order in which they are
declared in the class definition
• Not in the order they are listed in the constructor’s member
initializer list
• Before the enclosing class object (host object) is constructed
– If a member initializer is not provided
• The member object’s default constructor will be called implicitly

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 // Fig. 10.10: Date.h
24
2 // Date class definition; Member functions defined in Date.cpp
Outline
3 #ifndef DATE_H
4 #define DATE_H
5
6 class Date Date.h
7 {
8 public: (1 of 1)
9 Date( int = 1, int = 1, int = 1900 ); // default constructor
10 void print() const; // print date in month/day/year format
11 ~Date(); // provided to confirm destruction order
12 private:
13 int month; // 1-12 (January-December)
14 int day; // 1-31 based on month
15 int year; // any year
16
17 // utility function to check if day is proper for month and year
18 int checkDay( int ) const;
19 }; // end class Date
20
21 #endif

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.11: Date.cpp
25
2
3
// Member-function definitions for class Date.
#include <iostream>
Outline
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6
Date.cpp
7 #include "Date.h" // include Date class definition
8
9 // constructor confirms proper value for month; calls
(1 of 3)
10 // utility function checkDay to confirm proper value for day
11 Date::Date( int mn, int dy, int yr )
12 {
13 if ( mn > 0 && mn <= 12 ) // validate the month
14 month = mn;
15 else
16 {
17 month = 1; // invalid month set to 1
18 cout << "Invalid month (" << mn << ") set to 1.\n";
19 } // end else
20
21 year = yr; // could validate yr
22 day = checkDay( dy ); // validate the day
23
24 // output Date object to show when its constructor is called
25 cout << "Date object constructor for date ";
26 print();
27 cout << endl;
28 } // end Date constructor

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
29
26
30 // print Date object in form month/day/year
Outline
31 void Date::print() const
32 {
33 cout << month << '/' << day << '/' << year;
34 } // end function print Date.cpp
35
36 // output Date object to show when its destructor is called (2 of 3)
37 Date::~Date()
38 {
39 cout << "Date object destructor for date ";
40 print();
41 cout << endl;
42 } // end ~Date destructor

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
43
27
44 // utility function to confirm proper day value based on
Outline
45 // month and year; handles leap years, too
46 int Date::checkDay( int testDay ) const
47 {
48 static const int daysPerMonth[ 13 ] = Date.cpp
49 { 0, 31, 28, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31 };
50 (3 of 3)
51 // determine whether testDay is valid for specified month
52 if ( testDay > 0 && testDay <= daysPerMonth[ month ] )
53 return testDay;
54
55 // February 29 check for leap year
56 if ( month == 2 && testDay == 29 && ( year % 400 == 0 ||
57 ( year % 4 == 0 && year % 100 != 0 ) ) )
58 return testDay;
59
60 cout << "Invalid day (" << testDay << ") set to 1.\n";
61 return 1; // leave object in consistent state if bad value
62 } // end function checkDay

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.12: Employee.h
28
2 // Employee class definition.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in Employee.cpp.
4 #ifndef EMPLOYEE_H
5 #define EMPLOYEE_H
6 Employee.h
7 #include "Date.h" // include Date class definition
8 (1 of 1)
9 class Employee
10 { Parameters to be passed via member
11 public: initializers to the constructor for class Date
12 Employee( const char * const, const char * const,
13 const Date &, const Date & );
14 void print() const;
15 ~Employee(); // provided to confirm destruction order
16 private: const objects of class Date as members
17 char firstName[ 25 ];
18 char lastName[ 25 ];
19 const Date birthDate; // composition: member object
20 const Date hireDate; // composition: member object
21 }; // end class Employee
22
23 #endif

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.13: Employee.cpp
29
2 // Member-function definitions for class Employee.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6 Employee.cpp
7 #include <cstring> // strlen and strncpy prototypes
8 using std::strlen; (1 of 2)
9 using std::strncpy;
10
11 #include "Employee.h" // Employee class definition
12 #include "Date.h" // Date class definition
13
14 // constructor uses member initializer list to pass initializer
15 // values to constructors of member objects birthDate and hireDate
16 // [Note: This invokes the so-called "default copy constructor" which the
17 // C++ compiler provides implicitly.]
18 Employee::Employee( const char * const first, const char * const last,
19 const Date &dateOfBirth, const Date &dateOfHire )
20 : birthDate( dateOfBirth ), // initialize birthDate
21 hireDate( dateOfHire ) // initialize hireDate
22 {
23 Member
// copy first into firstName and be sure that initializers
it fits that pass arguments to
24 int length = strlen( first ); Date’s implicit default copy constructor
25 length = ( length < 25 ? length : 24 );
26 strncpy( firstName, first, length );
27 firstName[ length ] = '\0';

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
28
30
29
30
// copy last into lastName and be sure that it fits
length = strlen( last );
Outline
31 length = ( length < 25 ? length : 24 );
32 strncpy( lastName, last, length );
33 lastName[ length ] = '\0';
Employee.cpp
34
35 // output Employee object to show when constructor is called
36 cout << "Employee object constructor: "
(2 of 2)
37 << firstName << ' ' << lastName << endl;
38 } // end Employee constructor
39
40 // print Employee object
41 void Employee::print() const
42 {
43 cout << lastName << ", " << firstName << " Hired: ";
44 hireDate.print();
45 cout << " Birthday: ";
46 birthDate.print();
47 cout << endl;
48 } // end function print
49
50 // output Employee object to show when its destructor is called
51 Employee::~Employee()
52 {
53 cout << "Employee object destructor: "
54 << lastName << ", " << firstName << endl;
55 } // end ~Employee destructor

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.14: fig10_14.cpp
31
2 // Demonstrating composition--an object with member objects.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6 fig10_14.cpp
7 #include "Employee.h" // Employee class definition
8 (1 of 2)
9 int main()
10 {
11 Date birth( 7, 24, 1949 );
12 Date hire( 3, 12, 1988 );
13 Employee manager( "Bob", "Blue", birth, hire );
14
15 cout << endl;
16 manager.print(); Passing objects to a host object constructor
17
18 cout << "\nTest Date constructor with invalid values:\n";
19 Date lastDayOff( 14, 35, 1994 ); // invalid month and day
20 cout << endl;
21 return 0;
22 } // end main

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
Date object constructor for date 7/24/1949 32
Date object constructor for date 3/12/1988 Outline
Employee object constructor: Bob Blue

Blue, Bob Hired: 3/12/1988 Birthday: 7/24/1949

Test Date constructor with invalid values: fig10_14.cpp

Invalid month (14) set to 1.
Invalid day (35) set to 1.
Date object constructor for date 1/1/1994
(2 of 2)
Date object destructor for date 1/1/1994
Employee object destructor: Blue, Bob
Date object destructor for date 3/12/1988
Date object destructor for date 7/24/1949
Date object destructor for date 3/12/1988
Date object destructor for date 7/24/1949

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
 33
10.4 friend Functions and friend
Classes
• friend function of a class
– Defined outside that class’s scope
• Not a member function of that class
– Yet has the right to access the non-public (and public)
members of that class
– Standalone functions or entire classes may be declared to
be friends of a class
– Can enhance performance
– Often appropriate when a member function cannot be used
for certain operations

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 34
10.4 friend Functions and friend
Classes (Cont.)
• To declare a function as a friend of a class:
– Provide the function prototype in the class definition
preceded by keyword friend
• To declare a class as a friend of a class:
– Place a declaration of the form
friend class ClassTwo;
in the definition of class ClassOne
• All member functions of class ClassTwo are friends of
class ClassOne

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 35
10.4 friend Functions and friend
Classes (Cont.)
• Friendship is granted, not taken
– For class B to be a friend of class A, class A must explicitly
declare that class B is its friend
• Friendship relation is neither symmetric nor transitive
– If class A is a friend of class B, and class B is a friend of class C,
you cannot infer that class B is a friend of class A, that class C is
a friend of class B, or that class A is a friend of class C
• It is possible to specify overloaded functions as friends
of a class
– Each overloaded function intended to be a friend must be
explicitly declared as a friend of the class

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 // Fig. 10.15: fig10_15.cpp
36
2 // Friends can access private members of a class.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6 fig10_15.cpp
7 // Count class definition
friend function declaration (can
8 class Count appear anywhere in the class) (1 of 2)
9 {
10 friend void setX( Count &, int ); // friend declaration
11 public:
12 // constructor
13 Count()
14 : x( 0 ) // initialize x to 0
15 {
16 // empty body
17 } // end constructor Count
18
19 // output x
20 void print() const
21 {
22 cout << x << endl;
23 } // end function print
24 private:
25 int x; // data member
26 }; // end class Count

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
27
37
28 // function setX can modify private data of Count
Outline
29 // because setX is declared as a friend of Count (line 10)
30 void setX( Count &c, int val )
31 {
32 c.x = val; // allowed because setX is a friend of Count fig10_15.cpp
33 } // end function setX
34 (2 of 2)
35 int main()
friend function can modify Count’s private data
36 {
37 Count counter; // create Count object
38
39 cout << "counter.x after instantiation: "; Calling a friend function; note that we
40 counter.print(); pass the Count object to the function
41
42 setX( counter, 8 ); // set x using a friend function
43 cout << "counter.x after call to setX friend function: ";
44 counter.print();
45 return 0;
46 } // end main

counter.x after instantiation: 0

counter.x after call to setX friend function: 8

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.16: fig10_16.cpp
38
2 // Non-friend/non-member functions cannot access private data of a class.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6 fig10_16.cpp
7 // Count class definition (note that there is no friendship declaration)
8 class Count (1 of 3)
9 {
10 public:
11 // constructor
12 Count()
13 : x( 0 ) // initialize x to 0
14 {
15 // empty body
16 } // end constructor Count
17
18 // output x
19 void print() const
20 {
21 cout << x << endl;
22 } // end function print
23 private:
24 int x; // data member
25 }; // end class Count

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
26
39
27 // function cannotSetX tries to modify private data of Count,
Outline
28 // but cannot because the function is not a friend of Count Non-friend function cannot
29 void cannotSetX( Count &c, int val )
access the class’s private data
30 {
31 c.x = val; // ERROR: cannot access private member in Count
fig10_16.cpp
32 } // end function cannotSetX
33
34 int main()
(2 of 3)
35 {
36 Count counter; // create Count object
37
38 cannotSetX( counter, 3 ); // cannotSetX is not a friend
39 return 0;
40 } // end main

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
Borland C++ command-line compiler error message: 40
Outline
Error E2247 Fig10_16/fig10_16.cpp 31: 'Count::x' is not accessible in
function cannotSetX(Count &,int)

Microsoft Visual C++.NET compiler error messages:

fig10_16.cpp
C:\cpphtp5_examples\ch10\Fig10_16\fig10_16.cpp(31) : error C2248: 'Count::x'
: cannot access private member declared in class 'Count' (3 of 3)
C:\cpphtp5_examples\ch10\Fig10_16\fig10_16.cpp(24) : see declaration
of 'Count::x'
C:\cpphtp5_examples\ch10\Fig10_16\fig10_16.cpp(9) : see declaration
of 'Count'

GNU C++ compiler error messages:

fig10_16.cpp:24: error: 'int Count::x' is private

fig10_16.cpp:31: error: within this context

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
 41

10.5 Using the this Pointer

• Member functions know which object’s data members to
manipulate
– Every object has access to its own address through a pointer
called this (a C++ keyword)
– An object’s this pointer is not part of the object itself
– The this pointer is passed (by the compiler) as an implicit
argument to each of the object’s non-static member functions
• Objects use the this pointer implicitly or explicitly
– Implicitly when accessing members directly
– Explicitly when using keyword this
– Type of the this pointer depends on the type of the object and
whether the executing member function is declared const

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 // Fig. 10.17: fig10_17.cpp
42
2 // Using the this pointer to refer to object members.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6 fig10_17.cpp
7 class Test
8 { (1 of 2)
9 public:
10 Test( int = 0 ); // default constructor
11 void print() const;
12 private:
13 int x;
14 }; // end class Test
15
16 // constructor
17 Test::Test( int value )
18 : x( value ) // initialize x to value
19 {
20 // empty body
21 } // end constructor Test

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
22
43
23 // print x using implicit and explicit this pointers;
Outline
24 // the parentheses around *this are required
25 void Test::print() const
26 {
27 // implicitly use the this pointer to access the member x fig10_17.cpp
28 cout << " x = " << x;
29 (2 of 2)
30 // explicitly use the this pointer and the arrow operator
Implicitly using the this pointer to access member x
31 // to access the member x
32 cout << "\n this->x = " << this->x;
33
34 // explicitly use the dereferenced this pointer and
Explicitly using the this pointer to access member x
35 // the dot operator to access the member x
36 cout << "\n(*this).x = " << ( *this ).x << endl;
37 } // end function print
38
Using the dereferenced this
39 int main()
40 {
pointer and the dot operator
41 Test testObject( 12 ); // instantiate and initialize testObject
42
43 testObject.print();
44 return 0;
45 } // end main

x = 12
this->x = 12
(*this).x = 12

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
 44

10.5 Using the this Pointer (Cont.)

• Cascaded member-function calls
– Multiple functions are invoked in the same statement
– Enabled by member functions returning the dereferenced
this pointer
– Example
• t.setMinute( 30 ).setSecond( 22 );
– Calls t.setMinute( 30 );
– Then calls t.setSecond( 22 );

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 // Fig. 10.18: Time.h
45
2 // Cascading member function calls.
Outline
3
4 // Time class definition.
5 // Member functions defined in Time.cpp.
6 #ifndef TIME_H Time.h
7 #define TIME_H
8 (1 of 2)
9 class Time
10 {
11 public:
12 Time( int = 0, int = 0, int = 0 ); // default constructor
13
14 // set functions (the Time & return types enable cascading)
15 Time &setTime( int, int, int ); // set hour, minute, second
16 Time &setHour( int ); // set hour
17 Time &setMinute( int ); // set minute
18 Time &setSecond( int ); // set second

set functions return Time & to enable cascading

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
19
46
20 // get functions (normally declared const)
Outline
21 int getHour() const; // return hour
22 int getMinute() const; // return minute
23 int getSecond() const; // return second
24 Time.h
25 // print functions (normally declared const)
26 void printUniversal() const; // print universal time (2 of 2)
27 void printStandard() const; // print standard time
28 private:
29 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format)
30 int minute; // 0 - 59
31 int second; // 0 - 59
32 }; // end class Time
33
34 #endif

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.19: Time.cpp
47
2 // Member-function definitions for Time class.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5
6 #include <iomanip> Time.cpp
7 using std::setfill;
8 using std::setw; (1 of 3)
9
10 #include "Time.h" // Time class definition
11
12 // constructor function to initialize private data;
13 // calls member function setTime to set variables;
14 // default values are 0 (see class definition)
15 Time::Time( int hr, int min, int sec )
16 {
17 setTime( hr, min, sec );
18 } // end Time constructor
19
20 // set values of hour, minute, and second
21 Time &Time::setTime( int h, int m, int s ) // note Time & return
22 {
23 setHour( h );
24 setMinute( m );
25 setSecond( s );
26 return *this; // enables cascading
27 } // end function setTime
Returning dereferenced this pointer enables cascading
 2006 Pearson Education,
Inc. All rights reserved.
28
48
29 // set hour value
Outline
30 Time &Time::setHour( int h ) // note Time & return
31 {
32 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0; // validate hour
33 return *this; // enables cascading Time.cpp
34 } // end function setHour
35 (2 of 3)
36 // set minute value
37 Time &Time::setMinute( int m ) // note Time & return
38 {
39 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0; // validate minute
40 return *this; // enables cascading
41 } // end function setMinute
42
43 // set second value
44 Time &Time::setSecond( int s ) // note Time & return
45 {
46 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0; // validate second
47 return *this; // enables cascading
48 } // end function setSecond
49
50 // get hour value
51 int Time::getHour() const
52 {
53 return hour;
54 } // end function getHour

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
55
49
56 // get minute value
Outline
57 int Time::getMinute() const
58 {
59 return minute;
60 } // end function getMinute Time.cpp
61
62 // get second value (3 of 3)
63 int Time::getSecond() const
64 {
65 return second;
66 } // end function getSecond
67
68 // print Time in universal-time format (HH:MM:SS)
69 void Time::printUniversal() const
70 {
71 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << hour << ":"
72 << setw( 2 ) << minute << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second;
73 } // end function printUniversal
74
75 // print Time in standard-time format (HH:MM:SS AM or PM)
76 void Time::printStandard() const
77 {
78 cout << ( ( hour == 0 || hour == 12 ) ? 12 : hour % 12 )
79 << ":" << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << minute
80 << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second << ( hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
81 } // end function printStandard

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.20: fig10_20.cpp
50
2
3
// Cascading member function calls with the this pointer.
#include <iostream>
Outline
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6
fig10_20.cpp
7 #include "Time.h" // Time class definition
8
9 int main()
(1 of 2)
10 {
11 Time t; // create Time object
12
13 // cascaded function calls
14 t.setHour( 18 ).setMinute( 30 ).setSecond( 22 );
15
16 // output time in universal and standard formats Cascaded function calls using the reference
17 cout << "Universal time: ";
returned by one function call to invoke the next
18 t.printUniversal();
19
20 cout << "\nStandard time: ";
21 t.printStandard();
22
23 cout << "\n\nNew standard time: ";
24
25 // cascaded function calls
26 t.setTime( 20, 20, 20 ).printStandard();
27 cout << endl;
28 return 0;
Note that these calls must appear in the
29 } // end main
order shown, because printStandard
does not return a reference to t
 2006 Pearson Education,
Inc. All rights reserved.
Universal time: 18:30:22 51
Standard time: 6:30:22 PM Outline
New standard time: 8:20:20 PM

fig10_20.cpp

(2 of 2)

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
 52
10.6 Dynamic Memory Management with
Operators new and delete
• Dynamic memory management
– Enables programmers to allocate and deallocate memory
for any built-in or user-defined type
– Performed by operators new and delete
– For example, dynamically allocating memory for an array
instead of using a fixed-size array

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 53
10.6 Dynamic Memory Management with
Operators new and delete (Cont.)
• Operator new
– Allocates (i.e., reserves) storage of the proper size for an
object at execution time
– Calls a constructor to initialize the object
– Returns a pointer of the type specified to the right of new
– Can be used to dynamically allocate any fundamental type
(such as int or double) or any class type
• Free store
– Sometimes called the heap
– Region of memory assigned to each program for storing
objects created at execution time

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 54
10.6 Dynamic Memory Management with
Operators new and delete (Cont.)
• Operator delete
– Destroys a dynamically allocated object
– Calls the destructor for the object
– Deallocates (i.e., releases) memory from the free store
– The memory can then be reused by the system to allocate
other objects

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 55
10.6 Dynamic Memory Management with
Operators new and delete (Cont.)
• Initializing an object allocated by new
– Initializer for a newly created fundamental-type variable
• Example
– double *ptr = new double( 3.14159 );
– Specify a comma-separated list of arguments to the
constructor of an object
• Example
– Time *timePtr = new Time( 12, 45, 0 );

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 56
10.6 Dynamic Memory Management with
Operators new and delete (Cont.)
• new operator can be used to allocate arrays
dynamically
– Dynamically allocate a 10-element integer array:
int *gradesArray = new int[ 10 ];
– Size of a dynamically allocated array
• Specified using any integral expression that can be evaluated
at execution time

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 57
10.6 Dynamic Memory Management with
Operators new and delete (Cont.)
• Delete a dynamically allocated array:
delete [] gradesArray;
– This deallocates the array to which gradesArray points
– If the pointer points to an array of objects
• First calls the destructor for every object in the array
• Then deallocates the memory
– If the statement did not include the square brackets ([])
and gradesArray pointed to an array of objects
• Only the first object in the array would have a destructor call

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 58

10.7 static Class Members

• static data member
– Only one copy of a variable shared by all objects of a class
• “Class-wide” information
• A property of the class shared by all instances, not a property
of a specific object of the class
– Declaration begins with keyword static

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 59

10.7 static Class Members (Cont.)

• static data member (Cont.)
– Example
• Video game with Martians and other space creatures
– Each Martian needs to know the martianCount
– martianCount should be static class-wide data
– Every Martian can access martianCount as if it
were a data member of that Martian
– Only one copy of martianCount exists
– May seem like global variables but have class scope
– Can be declared public, private or protected

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 60

10.7 static Class Members (Cont.)

• static data member (Cont.)
– Fundamental-type static data members
• Initialized by default to 0
• If you want a different initial value, a static data member can be
initialized once (and only once)
– A const static data member of int or enum type
• Can be initialized in its declaration in the class definition
– All other static data members
• Must be defined at file scope (i.e., outside the body of the class
definition)
• Can be initialized only in those definitions
– static data members of class types (i.e., static member
objects) that have default constructors
• Need not be initialized because their default constructors will be
called

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 61

10.7 static Class Members (Cont.)

• static data member (Cont.)
– Exists even when no objects of the class exist
• To access a public static class member when no objects
of the class exist
– Prefix the class name and the binary scope resolution
operator (::) to the name of the data member
– Example
• Martian::martianCount
– Also accessible through any object of that class
• Use the object’s name, the dot operator and the name of the
member
– Example
• myMartian.martianCount

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 62

10.7 static Class Members (Cont.)

• static member function
– Is a service of the class, not of a specific object of the class
• static applied to an item at file scope
– That item becomes known only in that file
– The static members of the class need to be available
from any client code that accesses the file
• So we cannot declare them static in the .cpp file—we
declare them static only in the .h file.

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 // Fig. 10.21: Employee.h
63
2 // Employee class definition.
Outline
3 #ifndef EMPLOYEE_H
4 #define EMPLOYEE_H
5
6 class Employee fig10_21.cpp
7 {
8 public: (1 of 1)
9 Employee( const char * const, const char * const ); // constructor
10 ~Employee(); // destructor
11 const char *getFirstName() const; // return first name
12 const char *getLastName() const; // return last name
13
14 // static member function
15 static int getCount(); // return number of objects instantiated
16 private:
17 char *firstName;
18 char *lastName; Function prototype for static member function
19
20 // static data
21 static int count; // number of objects instantiated
22 }; // end class Employee
23
24 #endif static data member keeps track of number
of Employee objects that currently exist

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.22: Employee.cpp
64
2 // Member-function definitions for class Employee.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6 Employee.cpp
7 #include <cstring> // strlen and strcpy prototypes
8 using std::strlen; (1 of 3)
9 using std::strcpy;
10
11 #include "Employee.h" // Employee class definition
12
13 // define and initialize static data member at file scope
14 int Employee::count = 0;
15
static
16 // define static member function that data
returns member
number of is defined and
17 // Employee objects instantiated initialized at file scope
(declared static in the .cpp file
in Employee.h)
18 int Employee::getCount()
19 {
20 return count;
21 } // end static function getCount

static member function can access

only static data, because the function
might be called when no objects exist

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
22
65
23 // constructor dynamically allocates space for first and last name and
24 // uses strcpy to copy first and last names into the object
Outline
25 Employee::Employee( const char * const first, const char * const last )
26 {
27 firstName = new char[ strlen( first ) + 1 ];
Employee.cpp
28 strcpy( firstName, first );
29 Dynamically allocating char arrays
30 lastName = new char[ strlen( last ) + 1 ];
(2 of 3)
31 strcpy( lastName, last );
32 Non-static member function (i.e., constructor)
33 count++; // increment can modify
static theemployees
count of class’s static data members
34
35 cout << "Employee constructor for " << firstName
36 << ' ' << lastName << " called." << endl;
37 } // end Employee constructor
38
39 // destructor deallocates dynamically allocated memory
40 Employee::~Employee()
41 {
42 cout << "~Employee() called for " << firstName
43 << ' ' << lastName << endl;
44
45 delete [] firstName; // release memory
46 delete [] lastName; // release memory
Deallocating memory reserved for arrays
47
48 count--; // decrement static count of employees
49 } // end ~Employee destructor

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
50
66
51 // return first name of employee
Outline
52 const char *Employee::getFirstName() const
53 {
54 // const before return type prevents client from modifying
55 // private data; client should copy returned string before Employee.cpp
56 // destructor deletes storage to prevent undefined pointer
57 return firstName; (3 of 3)
58 } // end function getFirstName
59
60 // return last name of employee
61 const char *Employee::getLastName() const
62 {
63 // const before return type prevents client from modifying
64 // private data; client should copy returned string before
65 // destructor deletes storage to prevent undefined pointer
66 return lastName;
67 } // end function getLastName

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.23: fig10_23.cpp
67
2
3
// Driver to test class Employee.
#include <iostream>
Outline
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6
fig10_23.cpp
7 #include "Employee.h" // Employee class definition
8
9 int main()
(1 of 2)
10 {
11 // use class name and binary scope resolution operator to
12 // access static number function getCount
13 cout << "Number of employees before instantiation of any objects is "
14 << Employee::getCount() << endl; // use class name
15
16 Calling
// use new to dynamically create two new Employees static member function using class
17 // operator new also calls the object's constructorname and binary scope resolution operator
18 Employee *e1Ptr = new Employee( "Susan", "Baker" );
19 Employee *e2Ptr = new Employee( "Robert", "Jones" );
20
21 // call getCount on first Employee object
22
Dynamically creating Employees with new
cout << "Number of employees after objects are instantiated is "
23 << e1Ptr->getCount();
24
25 cout << "\n\nEmployee 1: "
Calling a static member function
26 << e1Ptr->getFirstName() << " " << e1Ptr->getLastName()
27 << "\nEmployee 2: "
through a pointer to
an object of the class
28 << e2Ptr->getFirstName() << " " << e2Ptr->getLastName() << "\n\n";

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
29
68
30 delete e1Ptr; // deallocate memory
Outline
31 e1Ptr = 0; // disconnect pointer from free-store space
32 delete e2Ptr; // deallocate memory
Releasing memory to which a pointer points
33 e2Ptr = 0; // disconnect pointer from free-store space
34 fig10_23.cpp
35 // no objects exist, so callDisconnecting
static member afunction
pointer from any space
getCount again in memory
36 // using the class name and the binary scope resolution operator (2 of 2)
37 cout << "Number of employees after objects are deleted is "
38 << Employee::getCount() << endl;
39 return 0;
40 } // end main

Number of employees before instantiation of any objects is 0

Employee constructor for Susan Baker called.
Employee constructor for Robert Jones called.
Number of employees after objects are instantiated is 2

Employee 1: Susan Baker

Employee 2: Robert Jones

~Employee() called for Susan Baker

~Employee() called for Robert Jones
Number of employees after objects are deleted is 0

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
 69

10.7 static Class Members (Cont.)

• Declare a member function static
– If it does not access non-static data members or non-
static member functions of the class
– A static member function does not have a this pointer
– static data members and static member functions
exist independently of any objects of a class
– When a static member function is called, there might
not be any objects of its class in memory

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 70
10.8 Data Abstraction and Information
Hiding
• Information Hiding
– A class normally hides implementation details from clients
• Data abstraction
– Client cares about what functionality a class offers, not
about how that functionality is implemented
• For example, a client of a stack class need not be concerned
with the stack’s implementation (e.g., a linked list)
– Programmers should not write code that depends on a
class’s implementation details

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 71
10.8 Data Abstraction and Information
Hiding (Cont.)
• Importance of data
– Elevated in C++ and object-oriented community
• Primary activities of object-oriented programming in C++
– Creation of types (i.e., classes)
– Expression of the interactions among objects of those
types
– Abstract data types (ADTs)
• Improve the program development process

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 72
10.8 Data Abstraction and Information
Hiding (Cont.)
• Abstract data types (ADTs)
– Essentially ways of representing real-world notions to some
satisfactory level of precision within a computer system
– Types like int, double, char and others are all ADTs
• e.g., int is an abstract representation of an integer
– Capture two notions:
• Data representation
• Operations that can be performed on the data
– C++ classes implement ADTs and their services

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 73

10.8.1 Example: Array Abstract Data Type

• Many array operations not built into C++

– e.g., subscript range checking
• Programmers can develop an array ADT as a
class that is preferable to “raw” arrays
– Can provide many helpful new capabilities
• C++ Standard Library class template vector

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 74
10.8.2 Example: String Abstract Data
Type
• No string data type among C++’s built-in data
types
– C++ is an intentionally sparse language
• Provides programmers with only the raw capabilities needed
to build a broad range of systems
• Designed to minimize performance burdens
• Designed to include mechanisms for creating and
implementing string abstract data types through classes
– C++ Standard Library class string

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 75
10.8.3 Example: Queue Abstract Data
Type
• Queue ADT
– Items returned in first-in, first-out (FIFO) order
• First item inserted in the queue is the first item removed from the
queue
– Hides an internal data representation that somehow keeps track
of the items currently waiting in line
– Good example of an abstract data type
• Clients invoke enqueue operation to put things in the queue one at a
time
• Clients invoke dequeue operation to get those things back one at a
time on demand
– C++ Standard Library queue class

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 76

10.9 Container Classes and Iterators

• Container classes (also called collection classes)
– Classes designed to hold collections of objects
– Commonly provide services such as insertion, deletion,
searching, sorting, and testing an item to determine
whether it is a member of the collection
– Examples
• Arrays
• Stacks
• Queues
• Trees
• Linked lists

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 77
10.9 Container Classes and Iterators
(Cont.)
• Iterator objects—or more simply iterators
– Commonly associated with container classes
– An object that “walks through” a collection, returning the
next item (or performing some action on the next item)
– A container class can have several iterators operating on it
at once
– Each iterator maintains its own “position” information

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 78

10.10 Proxy Classes

• Header files contain some portion of a class’s
implementation and hints about others
– For example, a class’s private members are listed in the
class definition in a header file
– Potentially exposes proprietary information to clients of
the class

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 79

10.10 Proxy Classes (Cont.)

• Proxy class
– Hides even the private data of a class from clients
– Knows only the public interface of your class
– Enables the clients to use your class’s services without
giving the client access to your class’s implementation
details

 2006 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

1 // Fig. 10.24: Implementation.h
80
2 // Header file for class Implementation
Outline
3
4 class Implementation
5 {
6 public: Class definition for the class that contains the Implementation.h
7 // constructor proprietary implementation we would like to hide
8 Implementation( int v ) (1 of 1)
9 : value( v ) // initialize value with v
10 {
11 // empty body
12 } // end constructor Implementation
13
14 // set value to v
15 void setValue( int v )
16 {
17 value = v; // should validate v
18 } // end function setValue
19
20 // return value
21 int getValue() const
22 {
23 return value;
24 } // end function getValue
25 private:
26 int value; // data that we would like to hide from the client
27 }; // end class Implementation
The data we would like to hide from the client
 2006 Pearson Education,
Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.25: Interface.h
81
2 // Header file for class Interface
Outline
3 // Client sees this source code, but the source code does not reveal
4 // the data layout of class Implementation.
5
6 class Implementation; // forward class declaration required by line 17 Interface.h
7
8 class Interface (1 of 1)
Declares Implementation as a data type
9 {
without including the class’s complete header file
10 public:
11 Interface( int ); // constructor
12 void setValue( int ); // same public interface as
13 int getValue() const; // class Implementation has
14 ~Interface(); // destructor
15 private: public interface between client and hidden class
16 // requires previous forward declaration (line 6)
17 Implementation *ptr;
18 }; // end class Interface
Using a pointer allows us to hide implementation
details of class Implementation

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.26: Interface.cpp
82
2
3
// Implementation of class Interface--client receives this file only
// as precompiled object code, keeping the implementation hidden.
Outline
4 #include "Interface.h" // Interface class definition
5 #include "Implementation.h" // Implementation class definition
6
Interface.cpp
7 // constructor
Only location where Implementation.h
8 Interface::Interface( int v )
9
is included with #include
: ptr ( new Implementation( v ) ) // initialize ptr to point to
(1 of 1)
10 { // a new Implementation object
11 // empty body
12 } // end Interface constructor
13
14 // call Implementation's setValue function
15 void Interface::setValue( int v )
16 {
17 ptr->setValue( v );
18 } // end function setValue
19 Setting the value of the hidden data via a pointer
20 // call Implementation's getValue function
21 int Interface::getValue() const
22 {
23 return ptr->getValue();
24 } // end function getValue
25 Getting the value of the hidden data via a pointer
26 // destructor
27 Interface::~Interface()
28 {
29 delete ptr;
30 } // end ~Interface destructor

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.
1 // Fig. 10.27: fig10_27.cpp
83
2 // Hiding a class’s private data with a proxy class.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout;
5 using std::endl;
6 fig10_27.cpp
7 #include "Interface.h" // Interface class definition
8 (1 of 1)
9 int main()
Only the header file for Interface is included in
10 {
the client code—no mention of the existence of a
11 Interface i( 5 ); // create Interface object
separate class called Implementation
12
13 cout << "Interface contains: " << i.getValue()
14 << " before setValue" << endl;
15
16 i.setValue( 10 );
17
18 cout << "Interface contains: " << i.getValue()
19 << " after setValue" << endl;
20 return 0;
21 } // end main

Interface contains: 5 before setValue

Interface contains: 10 after setValue

 2006 Pearson Education,

Inc. All rights reserved.