Chapter Two

Thermodynamic Analysis of IC Engine

Air-Standard Cycle
By: Mohammed A.

1
 Content
 Introduction
 Air Standard Cycle
 Carnot Cycle
 Stirling Cycle
 Eriksson Cycle
 Otto Cycle
 Diesel Cycle
 Dual Cycle
 Compression of Otto, Diesel & Dual
 Lenoir Cycle
 Atkinson Cycle
 Miller Cycle 2
 Introduction
 The three steps of Thermodynamic Analysis of IC Engines are
1. Ideal Gas Cycle (Air Standard Cycle)
 Idealized processes
 Idealize working Fluid
2. Fuel-Air Cycle
 Idealized Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model
3. Actual Engine Cycle
 Accurate Models of Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model

3
Air Standard Cycle
 The operating cycle of an IC engine can be broken down into a
sequence of separate processes
 Intake, Compression, Combustion, Expansion and Exhaust.
 Actual IC Engine does not operate on a thermodynamic cycle
are operated on open cycle.
 The accurate analysis of IC engine processes is very
complicated. In order to understand them it is advantageous to
analyze the performance of an Idealized closed cycle
 Air-standard analysis is used to perform elementary analyses
of IC engine cycles
4
Air-Standard Cycle Assumptions
 Simplifications to the real cycle include:
 Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
 Combustion process not considered
 Intake and exhaust processes not considered (There is Heat addition
and heat rejection source and Sink)
 There is no heat losses from the system to the surrounding
 Engine friction and heat losses not considered
 All the processes that constitute the cycle are reversal
 Specific heats independent of temperature
 For Air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K Cv = 0.717kJ/kgK , γ = 1.4 M=
29kg/kmol
5
 CARNOT CYCLE
 Sadi Carnot, a French engineer, proposed P 1
absorbs
a reversible cycle in 1824, heat
 the working medium receives heat at a 2

higher temperature and rejects heat at a TH

lower temperature 4 3 TC
rejects heat

1 – 2 isothermal heat addition (in contact S

V
with TH) 3 2

contained in gas
2 – 3 isentropic expansion to TC

entropy
3 – 4 isothermal heat rejection (in contact
4 1
with TC)
4 – 1 isentropic compression to TH TC TH6 T
CARNOT CYCLE
 The areas under the process curves on
 the P-v diagram represent the work done for closed
systems. (W net)
 T-s diagram represent the heat transfer for the processes.
(Q net)
 W net = Qnet Because  dU  0   TdS   PdV
 W   Q  Q34   TH ( S 2  S1 )  TL ( S 3  S 4 ) 
 Carnot   net    1 2    
 Qin   Q1 2   TH ( S 2  S 1 ) 
 T  TL  T 
 Carnot   H   1   L 
 TH   TH  7
CARNOT CYCLE
 We often use the Carnot efficiency as a means to think about ways
to improve the cycle efficiency of other cycles.
 One of the observations about the efficiency of both ideal and
actual cycles comes from the Carnot efficiency:
 Thermal efficiency increases
 with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is
supplied to the system or
 with a decrease in the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the system. 8
STRIRLING CYCLE
 The Carnot cycle has a low mean effective pressure because of its
very low work output. Hence, one of the modified forms of the
cycle to produce higher mean effective pressure while theoretically
achieving full Carnot cycle efficiency is the Stirling cycle
 Stirling engine – a simple, practical heat engine using a gas as
working substance. It’s more practical than Carnot, though its
efficiency is pretty close to the Carnot maximum efficiency

9
 STRIRLING CYCLE
 It consists of
 two isothermal and

 two constant volume processes.

 The heat rejection and addition take

place at constant temperature.

T
3
3-4 Isothermal Heat Addition 4
T2
4-1 Con Vol Expansion
1-2 Isothermal Heat rejection
T1 1
2-3 Con Vol Compression 2

10

V1 V2
STRIRLING CYCLE
 W  W2 1 
 Stirling   3 4  
 W3 4 
 V  V 
  RT3 log e ( 4 V    RT1  log e  1 V  
 3  2

 RT log V4  
 3  V  
  3 

 But V3=V2 and V4=V1

 T3  T1 
 Stirling    Same as Carnot Cycle efficiency
 T3 
11
STRIRLING CYCLE
 The design of Stirling engine involves a major difficulty in the
design and construction of heat exchanger to operate
continuously at very high temperatures.
 In practice, the heat exchanger efficiency, cannot be 100%.
Hence the Stirling cycle efficiency will be less than Carnot
efficiency
 R T3  T1  log e r 
 Stirling 
 
  RT3 log r   1    CV  T3  T1  

Where r= (V4/V1) = (V3/V2)

ε- Heat Exchanger Effectiveness 12
 ERICSSON CYCLE
 The Ericsson cycle consists of
 two isothermal processes and
 two constant pressure processes.
 The heat addition and rejection take place at constant pressure as well as isothermal
processes
 the process 2 to 3 and 4 to 1 are parallel to each other on the T-s diagram,
 the net effect is that the heat need be added only at constant temperature T 3 = T4 and
rejected at the constant temperature Tl = T2
 The advantage of the Ericsson cycle over the Carnot and Stirling cycles is its smaller
pressure ratio for a given ratio of maximum to minimum specific volume with higher mean
effective pressure.
13
 OTTO CYCLE
 The main drawback of the Carnot cycle is its impracticability due
to high pressure and high volume ratios employed with
comparatively low mean effective pressure.
 Nicolaus Otto (1876), proposed a constant-volume heat addition
cycle which forms the basis for the working of today's spark-
ignition engines.
 It consists of
 Two Constant Volume Processes
14
 Two Isentropic Processes
OTTO CYCLE

1-2 Isentropic
compression
2-3 Constant volume
heat addition
3-4 Isentropic
expansion
4-1 Constant volume
heat rejection

15
OTTO CYCLE
 Thermal Efficiency of the Otto cycle
Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Qout
 th     1
Qin Qin Qin Qin

Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Qnet , 23  U 23
Thus, for constant specific heats,
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )
16
OTTO CYCLE
Similarly apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41   Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout   mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )

The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout (T4  T1 )
 th , Otto  1  th , Otto  1
Qin (T3  T2 )
mCv (T4  T1 ) T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1  1
mCv (T3  T2 ) T2 (T3 / T2  1)
17
OTTO CYCLE
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1, we see that

Is this the same as the

( T4  T1 ) Carnot cycle efficiency?
 th , Otto  1
( T3  T2 )
T1
T1 (T4 / T1  1)  th , Otto  1
 1 T2 18

T2 (T3 / T2  1)
 OTTO CYCLE
Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

This looks like the Carnot efficiency, but

it is not! T1 and T2 are not constant.

where the compression ratio is r = V1/V2 and

1 What are the limitations for

 th , Otto  1  this expression?
r k 1
19
OTTO CYCLE
 Differences between Otto and Carnot cycles
 This looks like the Carnot efficiency, but it is not! T1
and T2 are not constant.

20
OTTO CYCLE
 Spark ignition engine compression ratio limited by
 T3 (Auto ignition)
 P3 (material strength),
 For r = 8 the efficiency is 56%
 Cylinder temperatures vary between 300K and 2000K so
1.2 < k < 1.4
 k = 1.3 most representative

21
OTTO CYCLE
Factors Affecting Work per Cycle
 The net cycle work of an engine can be increased by
3’
either: P ’
 i) Increasing the r (1’2) 3 (ii)
4’
 ii) Increase Qin (23”) Qin ’
Wcycle 4
Mean effective pressure (mep)
4’
Wcycle Qin  r  2 (i)
imep     th
V1  V2 V1  r  1  1
1’
 V2 
V1  V2  V1 
 1  

 V1  V2 V1
R0 T1 Q2 3
p1m
 1
 V1 1  
V1  M MR0T1
 r m p1 mep  
1 22
1
r
 OTTO CYCLE
 Non-dimensionalizing mep with p1 we get
  R0
mep  1   Q m 
  cv    1
p1 1   R0 T1  m
1  
 r

mep Q 1 Determine the relation for

 mep/p3
p1 cvT1  1
1     1 mep mep 1 1
 r    Q p3 p1 r
Mep/p1 is a function of  1
1
cvT1r
heat added, initial temperature,
compression ratio properties of air, namely, cv and γ 23
 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
 In actual spark-ignition engines, the upper limit of compression ratio is
limited by the self-ignition temperature of the fuel.
 This limitation on the compression ratio can be circumvented if air and
fuel are compressed separately and brought together at the time of
combustion.
 In such an arrangement fuel can be injected into the cylinder which
contains compressed air at a higher temperature than the self-ignition
temperature of the fuel.
 Such engines work on heavy liquid fuels. These engines are called
compression-ignition engines and they work on a ideal cycle known as
Diesel cycle 24
 DIESEL CYCLE
 The difference between Otto and Diesel cycles
is in the process of heat addition. In Otto cycle
the heat addition takes place at constant volume
whereas in the Diesel cycle it is at constant
pressure
 1-2 Isentropic Compression
 2-3 Con Pre. Heat Addition
 3-4 Isentropic Expansion
 4-1 Con Vol. Heat Rejection
25
 Thermodynamic Cycles for CI engines
• In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached
TDC and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke.
• In modern engines the fuel is injected before TDC (about 15o)

Fuel injection starts

Fuel injection starts

Early CI engine Modern CI engine

• The combustion process in the early CI engines is best approximated by

a constant pressure heat addition process  Diesel Cycle
• The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best approximated
26

by a combination of constant volume and constant pressure  Dual Cycle

Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle

Wnet Qout
 th , Diesel   1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply the first law closed system to process 2-3, P = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23  U 23  P2 (V3  V2 )
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )  mR (T3  T2 )
R=CP-CV Qin  mC p (T3  T2 )

27
Apply the first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant (just as we
did for the Otto cycle)

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41   Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout   mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout
 th , Diesel  1
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mC p (T3  T2 )
28
 Cv (T4  T1 )
 th , Diesel  1
C p (T3  T2 )
1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
k T2 (T3 / T2  1)

PV PV
3 3
 2 2 where P3  P2
What is T3/T2 ?
T3 T2
T3 V3
  rc
T2 V2

where rc is called the cutoff ratio, defined as V3 /V2, and is a measure

of the duration of the heat addition at constant pressure.
Since the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder, the cutoff ratio can
be related to the number of degrees that the crank rotated during the
fuel injection into the cylinder. 29
 PV PV
4 4
 1 1 where V4  V1
T4 T1
What is T4/T1 ?
T4 P4

T1 P1
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

PV  PV
1 1
k
2 2
k
and PV  PV4 4
k
3 3
k

Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by the first equation and
obtain

30
 DIESEL CYCLE
Therefore, The Thermal Efficiency is

1 T1 ( T4 / T1  1)
 th , Diesel  1
k T2 ( T3 / T2  1)
1 T1 r  1 k
 Diesel

 1  k 1  

1  1 rck  1 
 1  
c
k T2 ( rc  1) const cV r  k rc  1 

1 rck  1
 1
r k 1 k ( rc  1)
Note the term in the square bracket is always larger than unity so for
the same compression ratio, r, the Diesel cycle has a lower thermal
efficiency than the Otto cycle 31

Note: CI needs higher r compared to SI to ignite fuel

 DIESEL CYCLE
 What happens as rc goes to 1? Sketch the P-v diagram for the
Diesel cycle and show rc approaching 1 in the limit.

When rc > 1 for a fixed r,  th , Diesel  . th , Otto

But, since
rDiesel  rOtto .th , Diesel   th , Otto
 Thermal Efficiency

Higher efficiency is obtained by adding less heat per cycle, Qin,

 run engine at higher speed to get the same power.

k  1  Qin  1
rc  1    k 1
k  P1V1  r Typical CI Engines
15 < r < 20

as Qin 0, rc=v3/v21

The cut-off ratio is not a natural choice for the independent variable
33

more suitable parameter is the heat input, the two are related by:
 DIESEL CYCLE
 We can write the mep formula for the diesel cycle like
that for the Otto cycle in terms of the η, Q’, γ, cv and T1:
mep Q 1

p1 cvT1  1 
1  r    1

 We can write the mep in terms of γ, r and rc:

mep  r   rc  1  r  rc  1

p1  r  1   1
 The expression for mep/p3 is mep mep  1 
  
p3 p1  r 
34
 DUAL CYCLE
 In the Otto cycle, combustion is assumed at constant volume while in
Diesel cycle combustion is at constant pressure
 In practice they are far from real.
 Since, some time interval is required for the chemical reactions during
combustion process, the combustion cannot take place at constant
volume.
 Similarly, due to rapid uncontrolled combustion in diesel engines,
combustion does not occur at constant pressure.
 The Dual cycle, also called a mixed cycle or limited pressure cycle, is a
compromise between Otto and Diesel cycles.
35
DUAL CYCLE
1  2 Isentropic compression
2  3 Constant volume heat addition
3  4 Constant pressure heat addition
4  5 Isentropic expansion
5  1 Constant volume heat rejection

W   Q Q 
 Dual   net    in out  
 Qin   Qin 
 mCV (T3  T2 )  mC p (T4  T3 )  mCV (T5  T1 ) 
 
 mC (T  T )  mC (T  T ) 
 V 3 2 p 4 3 

1  rp rc  1 
  1   1  Where rp=p3/p2 = Pressure Ratio
r  rp  1   rp  rc  1  36
DUAL CYCLE
To obtain the mep in terms of the cut-off and pressure ratios
we have the following expression

mep  rp r

 rc  1  r   rp  1  r  rp rc 1 

p1  r  1   1

the expression for mep/p3

mep mep  p1 
  
p3 p1  p3 
37
DUAL CYCLE

We can write an expression for rp the pressure ratio in terms of

the peak pressure which is a known quantity:

p3  1 
rp    
p1  r 
We can obtain an expression for rc in terms of Q’ and rp and
other known quantities as follows:

1   Q  1  
rc          1 
   cvT1r   1  rp  
 38
 DUAL CYCLE
 We can also obtain an expression for rp in terms of Q’ and rc
and other known quantities as follows:
 Q 
 c T r   1  1
rp   v 1 
1   rc  

39
 Compression Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles
 The important variable factors which are used as the basis for
comparison of the cycles are
 compression ratio,
 peak pressure,
 heat addition,
 heat rejection and
 the net work
 a comparison of these three cycles is made for the
 same compression ratio,
 same heat addition,
 constant maximum pressure and temperature,
40

 same heat rejection and net work output

Compression Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles

 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition

All the cycles start from the same initial

state point 1 and the air is compressed from  Otto   Dual   Diesel
41
state 1 to 2 as the compression ratio is same
 Otto

Equal areas

Diesel o rk
t t oowrk
sOelw
Die

Otto heat
Diesel input
heat input

Otto vs. Diesel cycle (animation)

42
 Compression Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles

 Otto clearly has higher th - every Carnot strip has

same TL for both cycles, but every Otto strip has
higher TH

 Unlike Otto cycle, th for Diesel cannot be

determined by inspection of the T - s diagram since
each Carnot cycle strip has a different 1 - TL/TH

43
 Compression Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles

 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection

heat supplied in the Otto cycle is more than that of the Diesel cycle.
Hence, it is evident that, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater
44
Compression Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles

 Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat

Rejection

 Diesel   Otto 45
Compression Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles

 Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input

 Diesel   Otto

the heat rejection for Otto cycle is more than the heat rejected in
Diesel cycle, Hence Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle 46
Compression Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles

 Same Maximum Pressure & work Output

For same work output, the' entropy at
3 should be greater than entropy at
3'.

It is clear that the heat rejection for

Otto cycle is more than that of Diesel
cycle.

Hence, for these conditions the

Diesel cycle is more efficient than the
Otto cycle.

47
 LENIOR CYCLE
 The Lenoir cycle consists of the following processes
 Constant volume heat addition (1-2)

 isentropic expansion (2-3);

 constant pressure heat rejection (3-1).

 The Lenoir cycle is used for pulse jet engines.

48
 LENIOR CYCLE
p2
rp  and T2  T1 rp
p1
  1 
 
T3  p3    
  
T2  p 2 
  1    1 
   
1     1     1
T3  T2    T1 rp    
Tr 
1 p 
r  r 
 p   p 
 1
     1  
 T1 rp     T1   rp     1 
  1     1   
T
 1 p r  T1   pr  1 
   

In some text symbol is defined as follow

49
 ATKINSON CYCLE
 Atkinson cycle is an ideal cycle for Otto engine exhausting to
a gas turbine.
 In this cycle the isentropic expansion (3-4) of an Otto cycle
(1234) is further allowed to proceed to the lowest cycle
pressure so as to increase the work output. With this
modification the cycle is known as Atkinson cycle.
 Q  Qout   mCV (T3  T2 )  mC p (T4'  T1 ) 
  in
 Atkinson    
 Qin   mCV (T3  T2 ) 
T T 
 1    4' 1 
 T3  T2 
 er 
 1     
e r 

e=Expansion ratio=V4’/V3 50
 ATKINSON CYCLE
 Also called a “complete
expansion cycle”
 Expansion ratio is larger
than compression ratio
 Gives higher efficiency
than corresponding Otto
cycle engine
 Takes in lesser charge than
a similar Otto cycle engine

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 ATKINSON CYCLE
 Blowdown – At the end of the power stroke when the
exhaust valve opens the cylinder pressure is much higher
than the exhaust manifold pressure which is typically at 1
atm (P4 > Pe), so the cylinder gas flows out through the
exhaust valve and the pressure drops to Pe.

Blowdown
Displacement

TDC BDC
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 The Miller Cycle
 Introduced by Ralph Miller in the 1940s
 It is a modified Otto Cycle that improves fuel efficiency by
10%-20%.
 It relies on a supercharger/turbocharger, and takes advantage
of the supercharger’s greater efficiency at low compression
levels.
 This is applicable for the late closing cycle

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Example 1

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Solution

55
Example 2

56
Solution

57
Example 3

58
Solution

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Solution

60
 Examples 4

 A gas engine operating on the ideal Otto cycle has a compression

ratio of 6:1. The pressure and temperature at the commencement of
compression are 1 bar and 27 oC. The heat added during the constant
volume combustion processes is 1170 kJ/ kg. Determine the peak
pressure and temperature, work out put per kg of air and air standard
efficiency. Assume Cv=0.717 kJ/kg K and γ=1.4 for air

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 Solution
 Given Data
 Operating Cycle
 Otto Cycle
 Compression Ratio
 6:1
 At Point ‘1’
 P1=1 bar, T1=27oC
 Heat added
Required Values
 Q2-3=1170 kJ/kg
• Peak Pressure (p3)
• Peak Temperature (T3)
• work out put per kg of air
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• Efficiency
Solution
 Consider pro 1-2

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Solution
 Consider the Pro 2-3
 For Unit mass flow
q s  q 23  C v  T3  T2   1170 kJ
kg
 q   1170 
T3  T2   23      1631.8
 CV   0.717 
T3  1631.6  615  2246.8 K  1973.8 oC

P3  T3   2246.8 
       3.65
P2  T2   615 
P3   3.65  12.3  10 5   44.8  10 5 N 2  44.8 bar
m 64
Solution
 Work output = Area of the p-v diagram
=Area under (3-4) – Area under (2-1)
 P V  P4V4   P2V2  P1V1   RT3  RT4   RT2  RT1 
  3 3          
  1    1    1    1 
 R 
    T3  T4    T2  T1  
   1 

R   C P  CV   1.004  0.717   0.287 kJ

kg K
 1
T3  V3 
    r   1  6 0.4  2.048
T4  V4 
 T   2246.8 
T4   3      1097.1 K
 2.048   2 .048  65
Solution
 Work output/kg

 Efficiency

66
 Example-5
 Determine the ideal efficiency of the diesel engine having a cylinder
with bore 250 mm, stroke 375 mm and a clearance volume of 1500
cc, with fuel cut-off occurring at 5 % of the stroke. Assume γ=1.4 for
air
 Given Data
 Bore Dia b=250 mm
 Stroke length s=375 mm
 Clearance Volume Vc=1500 cc
 Cut-off (V3-V2)= 0.05 (Vs)

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 Solution
 To determine Compression ratio

  2   2
Vs   b S   25  37.5  18407.8 cc
4 4
 Vs   18407.8 
r  1    1    13.27
 Vc   1500 

 To determine Cut-off ratio

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Solution

 To determine efficiency

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Thermodynamic
Analysis of IC Engine
THE END

QUESTIONS?

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