Computer Networks and

Communications
 Communication is the transfer of information from
one place to another. It may be manual – one
person talks to another. Or it may be mechanical or
electronic gadget or device.
 The process of communication involves the
following three basic components:
 Sender-the component from which information is
transferred.
 Receiver –the component to which information is
transferred.
 Medium/channel-the component through which
information transferred.
 Protocols – a set of rules that defines the should be
followed for a communication
Mode of transmission

 The transmission medium may be physical (it

connects the transmitter and receivers
through wire) or logical (there are different
mode of transmission).
 Simplex
 Half-duplex
 Full-duplex
Simplex transmission
 In this transmission, signals are transmitted in only
one direction: One station is transmitter and the
other is receiver.
 Simplex channels are not often used because it is
not possible to send back error(s) or control signals
to transmitter end. Computers rarely use this mode
transmission as a receiver cannot send an
acknowledgement signals.
 E.g. TV, Radio transmission, etc
 Simplex

Sende
Receiver
r
Half-duplex transmission
 Transmission is possible in both directions but only
one way at a time i.e. both stations may transmit,
but only one at a time.
 It is possible to perform error detection and request
the sender to retransmit information that arrived
corrupted.
 E.g. Police radio (wacky talky) or talk back radio
Full-duplex transmission

 In this transmission, signals transmitted in

both direction, both stations may transmit
simultaneously. The medium carries signals
in both directions at the same time.
 Eg. Telephone, mobile phones
Data Transmission Channels

 A channel is a medium that carries a signal

from the transmitter to the receiver.
 The range of frequencies that can be
transmitted over a transmission medium is
called bandwidth of a channel.
 The rate of data transmission is directly
proportional to the bandwidth.
There are three types of data
transmission channels
 Narrow-band: - It is the smaller band and has slow data
transmission rate. Example: Telegraph line.

 Voice- band: - It is the wider band and has better data

transmission rate than the narrow band.
Example: Telephone lines.

 Broad-band: - It is the widest band has used to transmit

large volume of data with high speed.
Example: circuits, satellite communication and optical
fibers.
Network
What is a Computer Network?
 Computer Network is a communication system

where a group of Computers and other devices like

printers, scanners, etc are connected by cables.
OR
 Network may be defined as interconnection of

computing devices in order to share data across

wireless or wired technology. The network
infrastructure is built with a combination of computer
hardware and software.
 Advantages of Networking
 Networks allow efficient management of
resources.
 Networks help keep information reliable and
update.
 Networks help speed up data sharing.
 Networks facilitate efficient communication
Disadvantages of Networks
 Viruses transmission
 insecurity of information
Types of Networks

 Networks are placed under three categories:

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
 It is a network that is confined to a single location or
limited geographical areas be it a building or
complex buildings .

 The maximum distance from one end of the network

to another is usually limited by a signal strength.

 Examples:
 Two computers connected by a cable in an office
 100s of computers in a corporation
LAN network
Wide Area Network (WAN)
 LAN could not support the needs of large business and other
communities adequately whose offices and connections were
spread over a wide area.
 This led to the development of Wide Area Network. Such a
Network is spread over cities, states or countries.
 Here a physical cable spreading is not possible. So
communication in this Network takes place via telephone lines,
satellites, and microwave links.
 No geographical limit

 Can connect computers and other devices in different parts

of the world
 Examples:

 A corporation with offices in London & New York

 The Internet
WAN network
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 It is located in between LAN and WAN. It may

cover an entire city but uses LAN technology.
 Cable Television Network is an example of
MAN.
 All Network’s, have the following
components and features in common:

 Servers: Computers that provide shared

resources to the Network users.
 Clients: Computers that access shared resources
provided by servers.
 Media: The way in which computers are
connected.
 Resources: Files, Printers or other items to be
used by network users.
 On the basis of functioning of these
components Networks can be divided into
two broad categories:
 Peer-to-peer Network (P-2-p)
 Client/Server Based Network
Peer-to-Peer network
 Each computer has equal importance on a network.

 They can share the same devices (printers, disk

drives etc…) as well as files and software
applications, with another computer on a network.

 The computers perform their activities without

relaying on a centralized computer.

 Each computer has equally weighted in terms of

their role and responsibility on a network, and each
computer acts as both a client and a server.
Peer to Peer
Network
Summary: In peer-to-peer network
 No dedicated servers

 No hierarchy among computers (all are equal, and

known as peers)
 Each computer functions as both a client and a

server
 No overall network administrator

 Each user determines what data/resources he/she

will share
 Typically used for 10 users or less

 Simple, cheap to construct

 Usually no additional software required

Advantages
 It is usually less expensive.

 It is simple to design and maintenance.

Disadvantages
 Decentralized – No central repository

for files and applications.

 Security – Does not provide the

security available on peer-to-peer.

Client/Server network
 It is also called a server based network.
 The server act as a central computer and stores
the files that need to be shared on a network. It
is optimized to serve requests from network
clients.
 A client is any computer on a network that
requests the information stored on a server and
the server serves (provides) files and data to
the client computers on a network.
File Server

Other equipment
 Summary: Client-Server Networks
 Server (s) dedicated to providing particular
resources, e.g. File server, print server, mail
server, etc.
 Single administrator to provide security
privileges to users.
 Typically used for >10 users.
 More complex to install & maintain.
 Specialized server software required.
 The most common type of network.
Advantages
 Centralized – Resources and data security are
controlled through the server. More over it offers
extensive security.
 Flexibility – New technologies can be easily
integrated to the system.
 If a Network has to serve a large number of clients
and they are dispersed, a server based network is
feasible.
Disadvantages
 High initial expense.
 Maintenance – Large networks will require a staff to
ensure efficient operation.
 Dependence – When the server goes down,
operations will fail across the network.
Network Topology
 The term network topology refers to the shape of how the
computers and other network components are connected to each
other.
 It is the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables,
and other components on the network.
 Topology also determines how computers communicate on the
network.
 Topology also implies a number of conditions.
 For example, a particular topology can determine not only the
type of cable used but also how the cable is run through floors
and walls. It can also determine how the computers
communicate on the network. Different topologies require
different communication methods.
Determining which topology needs for the
network depends on several factors such as:

 Network budget
 Network size
 Level of security required
 Physical layout
 Type of business or organizations etc
Types of Network topologies:

The most standard or common network

topologies are categorized as:
 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Hybrid topology : mesh topology
Bus topology

 The first type of

network topology is
called a bus, in which
nodes are strung
together in a line, as
shown in Figure.
 Bus topology is
commonly used for
LANs.
 A bus topology is also known as linear bus.
It consists of several computers attached to
a common cable called the trunk line.
 In this type of topology, data on a network is
sent to all the computers on the network.
 Every node uses a common communication
link (the trunk, backbone or segment)
usually made from coaxial cable.
 All nodes compete with each other to use
the link and if two try to transmit at the same
time, there is a chance for collision .
 The more computers are there on the network, the
slower the network will be.
 If 1 computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the
network.
 Must have terminators at the ends of the trunk,
otherwise signals will bounce back
 Any break in the trunk will cause the entire
network to stop working.
(there will be un terminated cables, so signals will
bounce, causing all network activity to stop)
 Simple, easy to set up, no extra hardware costs
(e.g. hubs)
 Bus is a passive topology.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a
linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break
in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the
backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire
network shuts down.
Star topology

In a star topology, each

network node is
connected to a central
device called a hub or a
switch, as shown in
Figure.
Star topologies are also
commonly used with
LANs.
An 8 port hub

An 24 port switch
 Signals are transmitted from the sending computer
through the hub to all computers on the network.

 If a cable in a star network breaks, only the node

connected to that cable is isolated from the network.
The other nodes can continue to operate without
interruption.

 The star network offers the advantage of centralized

resources and management. This requires a great
deal of cable in a large network installation. (i.e. as
each Computer is connected to the hub, this
topology requires a great deal of cabling. )
 Strictly speaking, only networks that
use switches have a true star
topology.
 If the network uses a hub, the network topology
has the physical appearance of a star, but is
actually a bus because when a hub is used, each
computer on the network sees all the packets sent
over the network, just like in a bus topology.
 In a true star topology, as when a switch is used,
each computer sees only those packets that were
sent specifically to it, as well as broadcast packets
that were specifically sent to all computers on the
network.
Advantages of a Star Topology
 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network when connecting or

removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are

disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because
of the cost of the concentrators.
Summary: Star topology
 All nodes connect to a central hub
 Number of links = number of nodes
 For small networks, only a single hub is required
(hubs can have 4, 8, 16 or more connections), larger
networks can have multiple hubs
 Troubleshooting is easy, as entire groups of
computers can be taken off the network by
disconnecting their hub
 If a link fails, only 1 computer will be off the network
 If the hub fails, the network ceases to operate
 Passive topology
 Hub transmits messages to all nodes, each computer
checks the address on the message)
Ring topology
 A third type of network topology is called a
ring.
 In a ring topology, packets are sent around the
circle (loop) in one direction from computer to
computer.
 Each computer looks at each packet to decide
whether the packet was intended for it. If not,
the packet is passed on to the next computer
in the ring.
 There is no terminated end.
 Each computer in the ring topology can act as
a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to
the next computer.
Ring topology
Advantages
 Very orderly network where every device has
the opportunity to transmit.
 Performs better than a star topology under
heavy network load.
 Does not require network server to manage the
connectivity between the computers
 Does not require cabling space-a place for
hubs.
Disadvantages
 One malfunctioning workstation or bad port can
create problems for the entire network
 Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect
the network
Summary: Ring topology:
 Each node is connected to exactly 2 other
nodes (no central hub)
 Number of links = number of nodes

 Data sent between nodes typically has to

travel 2 or more links
 If a link or computer fails, the network will
still work, but performance will be slow
because of the extra distance required to
travel between nodes.
 Active topology – computers responsible for
passing on messages to other computers
Mesh topology
 Mesh networks are fully-interconnected, i.e. every
node has a link to every other node
 Number of links L = (N(N-1))/2, where L=Links
and N=Nodes
 Expensive to build, not feasible for large networks
 Fast communication between nodes
 Robust (i.e. if a link fails, the network will still
operate)
 Passive topology
Mesh topology
 Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus -Use of cable is economical. -Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
-Media is inexpensive and easy to -Problems are difficult to isolate.
work with. -Cable break can affect many users.
-System is simple and reliable.
-Bus is easy to extend.

Ring -System provides equal access for -Failureof one computer can affect the rest of
all computers. the network.
-Performance is even despite many -Problems are hard to isolate.

users. -Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.

Star -Modifying system and adding new -Ifthe centralized point fails, the network
computers is easy. fails.
-Failure of one computer does not

affect the rest of the network.

Mesh -System provides increased -System is expensive to install because it uses a

redundancy and reliability as well lot of cabling.
as ease of troubleshooting.
Internet

 Internet is a wide area network, which is the

network of networks that provides access to a
vast array of information stored in computer
systems throughout the world.
 Internet has a lot of services.
Electronic- Mail (E-mail)
 E-mail is one of the most widely used services on
the internet, E-mail is easy to send, read, reply to
and manage, and it is fast and convenient.
 E-mail is also global, allowing messages to pass
from Japan to the U.S in minutes, regardless or the
time they were sent.
 It is much cheaper to send an e-mail message then
a letter, or to make a long distance telephone call.
 Another advantage of e-mail is, it is possible to
send the same message to any number of
individuals as long as you know their e-mail
address.
World Wide Web (WWW)
 Is one of the widely used Internet services.
 The WWW allows you to combine text, a
video, graphics, and even animation to make
a document viewed easy.
 Links within WWW documents can take you
quickly to other related documents.
 WWW is a set of sites that you can go for
information.
 To access the WWW, it is necessary that you
run a WWW browser on your computer.
Use Net

 It is one of the Internet services which allow users

from any where on the Internet to participate in
discussion groups (News groups).
 It is an organized electronic mail (e-mail) system,
except there is no single user that mail is sent to.
 Instead, the messages you and every one else
using Use Net write are sent to a newsgroup
section, available for anyone who accesses that
news group.
Video Conferencing

 Video conferencing means making a

conference on the internet by individuals who
lives in different locations.
 The individuals speak and see each other.
Protocols

 Protocols are the set of rules that have to

followed for an effective communication
purposes.
 Here are some example protocols used for
various purposes.
Telnet
 It is a protocol that lets you log into a remote
computer directly through the Internet and you can
work on that computer
 Typically, telnet provides access to a remote host
via a virtual terminal connection.
 Telnet was developed in 1969 and standardized as
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) one of the
Internet standards.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

 This enables you to examine the files of

remote hosts on the Internet and to transfer
files between your hosts and the others.
 Using FTP programs we can upload or
download files.
 But to do this there should be an admission
from the remote computer.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is an application-level protocol for

distributed, collaborative, hypermedia
information systems.

Its use for retrieving inter-linked resources,

called hypertext documents, led to the
establishment of the World Wide Web.