Understanding and Analyzing Texts

Vocabulary
Connecting/transitional words (cohesive devices)
Reference words
Inference and deduction
Restating, Describing, Interpreting
 Managing difficult words

Keep your dictionary at hand when you're studying.

Look up unfamiliar words and work to understand what they mean.

If an approximate meaning is enough,

try to guess the meaning using word function, context (immediate
and wider) and word form
Examples
The frigid water made Elizabeth’s teeth chatter.
A. cold B. clean C. green D. warm
Typewriters became obsolete with the development of personal computers.
A. popular B. out-dated C. careful D. round
If the exact meaning is needed,
use a dictionary

If you're reading large amounts of difficult technical

material
it may be useful to use or compile a glossary.
keep this beside you as you read.
An Example of Glossary
Accuracy A term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target population
and the sample.

ANCOVA (Analysis of Co-Variance) Same method as ANOVA, but analyzes differences

between dependent variables.

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) A method of statistical analysis broadly applicable to a number

of research designs, used to determine differences among the means of two or more groups on a
variable. The independent variables are usually nominal, and the dependent variable is usual an
interval.

Apparency Clear, understandable representation of the data

Bell curve A frequency distribution statistics. Normal distribution is shaped like a bell.

Case Study The collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular
participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves.
Connecting / Transition words and phrases
English transition words are essential:

-They connect ideas

-They also introduce a certain shift, contrast or
opposition, emphasis or agreement.

They are also called: cohesive devices

semantic markers
transitional markers
Agreement / Addition / Similarity

These transitional words add information, reinforce ideas, and express agreement with
preceding material. 
Examples
In the first place
not only ... but also
as a matter of fact
in like manner
in addition
coupled with
 in the same fashion / way
first, second, third
in the light of
not to mention
equally important
again, also, then, identically, moreover, as well as, together with
of course
likewise, similarly, furthermore etc
Opposition / Contradiction

Transition phrases show that there is evidence to the contrary or point out
alternatives,

and thus introduce a change in the line of reasoning (contrast).  

Examples:
although
in contrast
different from
on the other hand, on the contrary
In spite of, even so / though
but, unlike, while, albeit, besides, instead, whereas, despite, conversely,
however, rather
nevertheless, nonetheless, regardless, notwithstanding
Cause / Condition / Purpose

These transitional phrases present specific conditions or intentions.

Example:
 in the event that
granted (that)
as / so long as
on (the) condition (that)
for the purpose of
with this intention
in order to
in view of
If... then, unless
because of, since, while, lest, in case
provided that, given that, so that, so as to, due to  
Examples / Support / Emphasis

These transitional devices introduce examples as support, to indicate importance or

as an illustration so that an idea is cued to the reader.

Examples
 to point out
notably
including
like
namely
especially, specifically
in general
in particular, in detail
for example, for instance
to demonstrate, such as 
 
Effect / Consequence / Result

Some of these transition words are time words that are used to
show that after a particular time there was a consequence or
an effect.

Examples:
as a result
thus
hence
consequently
therefore
henceforth 
Conclusion / Summary / Restatement

These transition words and phrases conclude, summarize and / or restate ideas,
or indicate a final general statement.

Examples:
given these points
after all
in summary
in conclusion
in short
in brief
to summarize
altogether
overall
to sum up, on the whole, all in all
 Reference Words
In grammatical analysis, the term reference is often
used to state a relationship of identity which exists
between grammatical units.

E.g. Pronouns (i.e. it, them, these, him, his etc.)'refer' to

nouns or noun phrase.
Anaphoric
(referring upward to previously mentioned words)

Cataphoric
(referring downward to subsequent words)

Exophoric
(referring to something outside the
Examples of reference words
 The concepts and ideas which we get from a study of Mechanics are things that
keep occurring when we try to interpret physical phenomena, and therefore
some understanding of them is essential.

 That, left to its own devices, a body continues in a state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line, assuming there are no external forces such as the
force of gravitation acting on it.

 Eating with your mouth closed has several benefits. Most importantly, it keeps
people from turning away in disgust.

 After he had received his orders, the soldier left the barracks.
 Inference
The ability to use two or more pieces of information
from a text in order to arrive at a third piece of
information that is implicit.

Inferences are based on evidence.

To infer, we must collect evidence.

And evidence is collected by the process of analysis.

Analysis is a process of investigating something by
breaking it into parts for closer examination
Inferences may be guesses
but they are educated guesses based on supporting evidence

Inferences tend to reflect prior knowledge and experience as

well as personal beliefs and assumptions

Thus inference involves:

1. Educated guess based on evidence
2. Prior knowledge and experience
3. Personal beliefs and assumptions
Examples
Katy dropped the vase. She ran for the dustpan and brush to sweep up the pieces.
You can infer that the vase is broken

A detective enters the house, which has been ransacked. He sees blood on the
floor, and it leads out the back door.
You can infer that a crime has occurred in the house.

When you enter a house, you see backpacks by the door, small shoes scattered
near them. You see an art easel, and a room with a doll house and a toy box.
You can infer that there are children in this family.

Your friend walks past you without smiling. Her head is hanging down. She wipes
a tear away from her eye, and looks at her report card.
You can infer that your friend did not have good grades on her report card.
 Deduction
Deductive reasoning is based on premises and if the premises are
true, then the reasoning will be valid.

Examples:
Elephants have cells in their bodies and all cells have DNA, so
elephants have DNA.

All cars have at least two doors and a Ford Focus is a car, so the
Ford Focus has at least two doors.

All horses have manes and the Arabian is a horse; therefore

Arabians have manes.
To deduce is to go from general information to
specifics.

To infer is to go from specific information to

generalizations.
 Levels of Reading Analyzing Text

1. Restatement
2. Description
3. Interpretation
Restatement: Reading What a Text Says

Reading what a text says is concerned with basic

comprehension
It is simply following the thought of a discussion.
Focus is on understanding each sentence, sentence by
sentence, and on following the thought from sentence
to sentence and paragraph to paragraph.
There is no attempt to assess the nature of the
discussion and no concern for an overall motive or
intent.
Reading what a text says is involved with rote learning.
Restatement generally takes the form of a summary or paraphrase

Reading what a text says is common under a variety of

circumstances:

 when learning the definitions and concepts of a new discipline

 when there is agreement on the facts of a situation and their
interpretation
 when a text is taken to offer a complete and objective presentation,
or
 when the word of a specific author or source is accepted as
authoritative.
Readers simply accept what a text states.

When first studying any academic topic, your initial goal will be to understand what others
have discovered before you.

Introductory courses ask students to learn terms, concepts, and data of the particular area
of study.

You are expected to use your imagination and your critical faculties to understand the
concepts; you are not expected to question the assertions.

The goal is to learn the commonly accepted paradigm for discussing topics in that field of
study.

Finally, remember that repeating the assertions of a text need not suggest a denial of
critical thinking, merely a postponing of, or preparation for, critical thinking.
Description: Describing What a Text Does

Here we are concerned with describing the discussion:

what topics are discussed?
what examples and evidence are used?
what conclusions are reached?
Example
Read an essay about AIDS, and you think about AIDS.

But you can also think about the essay.

Does it discuss preventive strategies or medical treatments? Or

both?

Does it describe AIDS symptoms or offer statistics?

Is the disease presented as a contagious disease, a Biblical

scourge, or an individual experience?
What evidence is relied on?

Does it quote medical authorities or offer anecdotes from

everyday people?

Does it appeal to reason or emotions? These are not

questions about what a text says, but about what the text
does.

They are not about AIDS, but about the discussion of AIDS.
This second level of reading is concerned not only
with understanding individual remarks, but also with
recognizing the structure of a discussion.

Here, you examine what a text does to convey ideas.

Understand how a particular conclusion is justified.

Look at the broad portions of the text to identify the
structure of the discussion as a whole

On completion, you can not only repeat what the text
says

But can also describe what the text does.

Identify how evidence is used and how the final points

are reached.
Interpretation: Analyzing What a Text Means
This final level of reading infers an overall meaning.

You examine features running throughout the text to see how the
discussion shapes your perception of reality.

You examine what a text does to convey meaning:

How patterns of content and language shape the portrayal of the

topic

And how relationships between those patterns convey underlying

meaning.
Readers infer as much, if not more, than they are told.

Readers go beyond the literal meaning of the words to

find significance and unstated meanings
 
Is it... good or bad...? Quality (how good/how bad)
... correct or incorrect...? Correctness (is it right)
... effective or ineffective...? Effectiveness (producing
successful/intended results)
... relevant or irrelevant...? Relevance (connected with the
subject/situation)
... clear or unclear...? Clarity (expressed clearly)
... logical or illogical...? Logic (sensible reasons)
... applicable or not applicable...? Applicability (is it true in a
particular case)
... proven or not proven...? Proof (is there any
information/documents to support it)
Reviewing Text
The following questions may be usefully asked
about any text you are reading for effective
revision or critiquing.

A: Purpose and background

B: The author and the text
C: Evidence used
D: Assumptions made
A: Purpose and background
Why are you reading this text? What is your purpose?
What type of text is it: research report, essay,
textbook, book review?
What do you know about the subject of the text?
What else has been written on the subject of the text?
What controversies exist in this area? How does this
text fit in?
 B: The author and the text

Who is the author? What do you know about the author?

What authority does the author have?
Who is the intended audience?
What is the author's purpose? Why has the text been
written?
What is the source of the text? Is it reputable? Who is the
publisher? What reputation do they have?
What is the date of publication? Is it appropriate to the
argument?
What is the writer's attitude towards the topic?
What conclusions are drawn?
 C: Evidence used

Is there a clear distinction between fact and opinion?

Is evidence used to support arguments? How good is the
evidence? Are all the points supported?
In an experimental study, was the sample size adequate and
are the statistics reliable?
Are there any unsupported points? Are they well-known facts
or generally accepted opinions?
How does the writer use other texts and other people's ideas?
Are the writer's conclusions reasonable in the light of the
evidence presented?
How do the conclusions relate to other similar research?
 D: Assumptions made

What assumptions has the writer made? Are they valid?

What beliefs or values does the writer hold? Are they

explicit?

Look at the language that is used, e.g. active/passive

verbs, pronouns, articles, etc.
Look for emphatic words such as, it is obvious, definitely

Look for hedges (to avoid verbal commitment): possible,

might, perhaps

Look for maximisers: completely, absolutely, entirely, or

minimisers: only, just, hardly, simply, merely
 Reading Habits
 The average adult reader employs reading skills
learned as a child but not adjusted to the world of
adult reading;

Most adult readers have 3 Really Bad Reading Habits:

Polysyllabic Word Fixation
Subvocalization
Habitual Regression
BAD HABIT NUMBER I

Polysyllabic Fixation

----many words in our language are polysyllabic, and the

term itself is self-explanatory--fixated on the syllables.
 Most adult readers recognized 1,000's of words immediately,
and many of these words are polysyllabic like hospital,
hippopotamus etc

 Research has shown that poor readers feel a need to actually

"read" each polysyllabic word each time they see it.

That means they "decode" the already known word and

really do not have to as they know it and can recognize it
immediately
you need not really decode/decipher them when
reading, but

very quickly pass over them, taking in all the rest of

the stuff with your brain-eye coordination and
memory
BAD HABIT NUMBER II
SUBVOCALIZATION
Talking while you read, either in your mouth, your throat, and or in your
head--or all three at some point.

Subvocalizing is not always bad given what and why you are reading.

This may originate in the way people learn to read by associating the sight
of words with their spoken sounds.

but in most cases, since you already know many of the words and
structures you are reading, sub vocalizing is a bad habit.

It offers you some security that you think you may need, but for the
average student who needs to read a lot of stuff, it can be deadly.
There is a time and place for sub vocalizing, but it does
indeed limit your reading speed to 350 words per
minute or lower, because that is about as fast as you
can talk!

Reading aloud, and subvocalization do have their

place in the reading process, but it should be limited
and not the norm for one who needs to digest large
qualities of material.
At the slower reading rates (100-300 words per minute), subvocalizing
may improve comprehension

Subvocalizing or actual vocalizing can indeed be of great help when one

wants to learn a passage verbatim

Tests suggest that full and permanent elimination of subvocalizing is

impossible

Advocates of speed reading generally claim that subvocalization places

extra burden on the cognitive resources, thus, slowing the reading down
BAD HABIT III: Habitual Regression
A reader is moving along from left to right, and then
stops because an unknown word or phrase appears

 The reader stops, ponders the word, thinks about it

for a while and then has to go back to someplace to
reread what was read before the impasse

This is short-circuiting the memory skills you have,

leaving little to chance or context(two things good
readers MUST do)
You are going slower than you need to, also causing
other cognitive abilities to slow down

Don't put the book down and look-up the word in a

dictionary—it kills efficient reading

That should take place in most instances in the Pre-

Reading PREVIEW time, or after a really efficient first
read
Materials
Reading skills (slides)
Understanding text (slides)
Evaluation Example
Reading at University (handout)
www.criticalreading.com (website)
WISH YOU
WISH YOU ALLALL THE
THE BEST

BEST