Linear Circuit Analysis
EE-111
Lecture-02
Instructor: Dr. Ayesha Habib (Asst Prof)
Department of Electrical Engineering, Military College of Signals
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
2018 MCS
1
Charge ,Voltage ,Current and Resistor
Chapter#2
Revision !
SI System of units
Power of Ten Notation
Scientific notation
Circuit Diagrams
Electrical Charge
Electrical charge is an intrinsic property of matter that manifests itself in
the form of forces—electrons repel other electrons but attract protons,
while protons repel each other but attract electrons.
The charge on the electron is negative while that on the proton is positive.
Charge on electrons and protons are equal and opposite.
If the atom acquires additional electrons (leaving it with more electrons
than protons), we say that it (the atom) is negatively charged;
conversely, if it loses electrons and is left with fewer electrons than
protons, we say that it is positively charged.
The charge is denoted by the letter Q, and its unit of measurement in the
SI system is the coulomb.
The term “charge” in this sense denotes an imbalance
between the number of electrons and protons present in
the atom.
Couloumbs Law
The force between charges was studied by
the French scientist Charles Coulomb (1736–
1806).
where Q1 and Q2 are the charges in
coulombs, r is the center-to-center spacing
between them in meters, and k= 9x109.
Force decreases inversely as the square of
distance;
Because of this relationship, electrons in
outer orbits are less strongly attracted to the
nucleus than those in inner orbits; that is,
they are less tightly bound to the nucleus
than those close by.
Valence electrons are the least tightly bound
and will, if they acquire sufficient energy,
escape from their parent atoms.
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
Materials through which charges move easily are termed conductors.
The most familiar examples are metals. Good metal conductors have
large numbers of free electrons that are able to move about easily. In
particular, silver, copper, gold, and aluminum are excellent
conductors.
Copper is the most widely used. Not only is it an excellent conductor,
it is inexpensive and easily formed into wire, making it suitable for a
broad spectrum of applications ranging from common house wiring to
sophisticated electronic equipment.
Aluminum, although it is only about 60% as good a conductor as
copper, is also used, mainly in applications where light weight is
important, such as in overhead power transmission lines.
Silver and gold are too expensive for general use.
Insulators
Materials that do not conduct (e.g., glass, porcelain,
plastic, rubber, and so on) are termed insulators.
It is used to prevent the wires from touching and to
protect us from electric shock.
Insulators do not conduct because they have full or
nearly full valence shells.
Semiconductors
Silicon and germanium (plus a few other materials) have half-
filled valence shells and are thus neither good conductors nor
good insulators. Known as semiconductors.
They have unique electrical properties that make them
important to the electronics industry. The most important
material is silicon.
It is used to make transistors, diodes, integrated circuits, and
other electronic devices.
Semiconductors have made possible personal computers,
VCRs, portable CD players, calculators, and a host of other
electronic products.
The coulomb
As noted in the previous section, the unit of electrical charge is
the coulomb (C). The coulomb is defined as the charge carried
by 6.24x1018 electrons.
Thus, if an electrically neutral (i.e., uncharged) body has
6.24x1018 electrons removed, it will be left with a net positive
charge of 1 coulomb, i.e., Q = 1 C.
Conversely, if an uncharged body has 6.24x1018 electrons
added, it will have a net negative charge of 1 coulomb, i.e., Q
= 1 C.
If 6.24x1018 electrons pass through a wire, we say that the
charge that passed through the wire is 1 C.
Voltage
When charges are detached
from one body and transferred
to another, a potential
difference or voltage results
between them.
The voltage is entirely due to
the separation of positive and
negative charges.
Figure 2–7 illustrates another
example.
Hundreds of millions of volts
are created in this way. (This
is what causes the air to break
down and a lightning
discharge to occur).
Potential Energy
The concept of voltage is tied into the concept of potential
energy.
In mechanics, potential energy is the energy that a body
possesses because of its position.
In a similar fashion, work is required to move positive and
negative charges apart. This gives them potential energy.
The Volt !
In electrical terms, a difference in potential energy
is defined as voltage. In general, the amount of
energy required to separate charges depends on
the voltage developed and the amount of charge
moved.
By definition, the voltage between two points
is one volt if it requires one joule of energy to
move one coulomb of charge from one point
to the other. In equation form,
Note carefully that voltage is defined between points.
For the case of the battery, for example, voltage appears
between its terminals.
Thus, voltage does not exist at a point by itself; it is always
determined with respect to some other point. (For this reason,
voltage is also called potential difference. We often use the
terms interchangeably.).
Symbols for DC Voltage Sources
The battery is the source of electrical
energy that moves charges around the
circuit. This movement of charges, as
we will soon see, is called an electric
current.
Because one of the battery’s terminals is
always positive and the other is always
negative, current is always in the same
direction. Such a unidirectional current
is called dc or direct current, and the
battery is called a dc source.
Current
The movement of charge is called an electric current.
The more electrons per second that pass through the
circuit, the greater is the current.
Thus, current is the rate of flow (or rate of movement) of
charge.
Current Direction
In the early days of electricity, it was believed that current was a
movement of positive charge and that these charges moved around the
circuit from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative as
depicted in Figure 2–11(a), known as the conventional current
direction
After the discovery of the atomic nature of matter, it was learned that
what actually moves in metallic conductors are electrons and that they
move through the circuit as in Figure 2–11(b). This direction is called
the electron flow direction.
Ampere
Since charge is measured in coulombs, its rate of flow is
coulombs per second.
In the SI system, one coulomb per second is defined as one
ampere (commonly abbreviated A).
From this, we get that one ampere is the current in a circuit
when one coulomb of charge passes a given point in one
second
Practical DC Voltage Sources
Batteries
Batteries are the most common dc source. They are made in a variety
of shapes, sizes, and ratings.
Capable of delivering only a few microamps to large automotive
batteries capable of delivering hundreds of amps.
Primary and Secondary Batteries
Some types of batteries, can be “recharged.” Such batteries
are called secondary batteries.
Other types, called primary batteries, cannot be recharged.
A familiar example of a secondary battery is the automobile
battery.
Types of Batteries
Alkaline
This is one of the most widely
used, general-purpose primary
cells available.
Alkaline batteries are used in
flashlights, portable radios, TV
remote controllers,cassette
players, cameras, toys, and so
on.
Alkaline batteries provide 50%
to 100% more total energy for
the same size unit than
carbon-zinc cells.
Their nominal cell voltage is
1.5 V.
Carbon-Zinc
Also called a dry cell, the
carbon-zinc battery was for
many years the most widely
used primary cell, but it is now
giving way to other types such
as the alkaline battery.
Its nominal cell voltage is 1.5
volts.
Lithium
Lithium batteries (Figure 2–13)
feature small size and long life
(e.g., shelflives of 10 to 20
years).
Applications include watches,
pacemakers, cameras,
Nickel-Cadmium
These are the most popular, general-purpose rechargeable
batteries available.
They have long service lives, operate over wide temperature
ranges, and are manufactured in many styles and sizes.
Inexpensive chargers make it economically feasible to use nickel-
cadmium batteries for home entertainment equipment.
Lead-Acid
This is the familiar automotive battery.
Its basic cell voltage is about 2 volts, but typically, six cells are
connected internally to provide 12 volts at its terminals.
Lead-acid batteries are capable of delivering large current (in
excess of 100 A) for short periods as required, for example, to
start an automobile.
Battery Capacity
Their capacity is specified in ampere-hours (Ah).
The ampere-hour rating of a battery is equal to the
product of its current drain times the length of time
that you can expect to draw the specified current
before the battery becomes unusable.
200 Ah bty ..
The relationship between capacity, life, and current
drain is
Cells in Series and Parallel
Measuring Voltage and Current
How to Measure Current !
PROBLEM 2
PROBLEM 3
Resistance of Conductors
The resistance of a material is dependent upon
several factors:
Type of material
Length of the conductor
Cross-sectional area
Temperature
The resistance of a conductor is dependent upon the type of
material.
Conductance
Conductance, G, is defined as the measure of a
material’s ability to allow the flow of charge and is
assigned the SI unit the siemens (S).
A large conductance indicates that a material is able
to conduct current well.
Mathematically, conductance is defined as the
reciprocal of resistance
Example
