Sensors
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Definition and classification
Transducers are devices that convert signals from one
physical form to another
For eg: from thermal to electrical
Sensors are devices that receives and responds to signal
stimuli or in short they are input transducers.
Eg: microphone
Actuators on the other hand are output transducers
Eg: loudspeaker
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Definition and classification
1. Active transducers
They produce their own voltage or current by converting energy
from the physical quantity being measured.
e.g. thermocouples, photovoltaic cells, piezoelectric pickups
2. Passive transducers
They require an external power source for producing output
e.g. resistance thermometers, strain gauges
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Definition and classification
Variable resistance type
Transducers involving a change in resistance for the quantity being measured
a) Light dependent resistor (LDR)
b) Strain gauges
c) Thermistors
d) Resistance pressure pads
e) Carbon granule microphones
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Definition and classification
Variable inductance type
Transducers involving a change in inductance for the quantity being measured
a) Linear Voltage Differential Transformer (LVDT)
b) Variable reluctance pickup
c) Eddy current sensors
d) Inductive proximity sensors
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Definition and classification
Variable capacitance type
Transducers involving a change in capacitance for the quantity being measured
a) Capacitor microphone
b) Capacitive proximity sensors
c) Capacitive touch screen interfaces
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Definition and classification
Voltage generating type
Transducers which generates a voltage corresponding to the quantity
being measured
a) Thermocouple
b) Photocell
c) Tachogenerators
d) Piezoelectric pickups
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Characteristics of Sensors
The performance characteristics of the sensors can be classified into
mainly;
• Static Characteristics
They are the characteristics of the sensors when there are no
transient changes and the inputs are at steady state
• Dynamic Characteristics
Properties of the sensors that determines its behavior to
transient behavior of the signals
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Static Characteristics
1. Sensitivity
The ratio of change between a transducer's output and input is known as its
sensitivity
Ideal sensitivity of a sensor can be represented by a straight line
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Static Characteristics
True sensitivity of a sensor will be seldom a straight line
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Static Characteristics
2. Non linearity
In the world of transducers, non-linearity is the maximum deviation in output
between a transducer's sensitivity curve and a linear representation of its true
sensitivity curve drawn between nominal zero and full scale. Non-linearity is
measured on increasing input only, and is expressed as a percent of full scale
output.
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Static Characteristics
3. Hysteresis
Hysteresis is defined as the deviation between the output corresponding to
increasing and decreasing values of inputs at the same level
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Static Characteristics
4. Accuracy
Accuracy is the capacity of the sensor to give outputs close to the real value
of the measured quantity. Usually accuracy is expressed in terms of % of
the real value.
Accuracy = Output – Real value
Real value
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Static Characteristics
5. Repeatability
Repeatability is the capability to give the same output for a specific
input at all times under the same prescribed conditions. Its also
expressed as a % of the measured quantity
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Static Characteristics
6.Resolution
It’s the minimum change in the measured quantity required to
create a detectable change in the out put.
When this change is from zero its known as Threshold
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Static Characteristics
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Static Characteristics
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Dynamic Characteristics
1. Response time
It’s the time taken for the transducer to give a constant output
corresponding to the input applied in the form of a step function
with a specified accuracy
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Dynamic Characteristics
2. Time constant
Its defined as a percentage ( = 63.2% )of response time
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Dynamic Characteristics
3.Rise time
It’s the time taken for the output of the sensor to reach a specified
percentage of the steady state output.
Usually its time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 95%
of steady state value
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Strain Gauges
It’s a sensor having a resistive element that changes
resistance
with strain
It’s widely used for measurement of deformation and indirectly a lot of
other parameters like force, torque, pressure, acceleration, etc
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Types of Strain Gauges
Foil type strain gauges having a zigzag conductor made out of an etched foil
Very widely used as bonded strain gauges
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Types of Strain Gauges
Weldable strain gauges used in steel structural members
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Types of Strain Gauges
Semiconductor strain gauges
Highly sensitive and stable
The resistance change is nonlinear
and requires additional
signal conditioning
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Strain gauge applications
1. Measuring deformation
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Strain gauge applications
Measuring force (Load cells)
Strain gauges are bonded to
an ‘S’ shaped steel member
that deforms under load
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Strain gauge applications
Torque ( Load cells )
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Strain gauge applications
Measurement of Pressure
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Temperature Sensors
1. Thermocouples
Most widely used due to their lower cost and versatility
Consists of two dissimilar metals joined together to form a junction which produces
an e.m.f. when a temperature gradient is applied
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Temperature Sensors
Some types of thermocouples
Type + electrode - electrode Range Sensitivity
(oC) (µV/°C )
K chromel alumel -200 - 1350 40
E chromel constantan -40 - 900 68
J iron constantan -40 - 750 55
N Ni-Cr-Si Ni-Si-Mg -270 - 1300 39
B, R, S Pt-Rh alloy Pt/ Pt-Rh -50 - 1768 10
alloy
T Copper Constantan -200 - 350 43
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Temperature Sensors
2. Thermistors
They are types of resistors that vary
Their resistance with change in temp
They are made of ceramics or polymers
Used widely as temperature sensors
in circuits
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Temperature Sensors
3. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
They are simple metallic coils of resistance
wire formed into suitable probes with encapsulation
Platinum is the most commonly
used material
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Proximity Sensing
Inductive
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Proximity Sensing
Capacitive
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Proximity Sensing
Capacitive
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Proximity Sensing
Ultrasonic
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Proximity Sensing
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Proximity Sensing
Photoelectric
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Proximity Sensing
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Proximity Sensing
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Proximity Sensing
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Capacitive
It can be a simple variable area capacitor or
a fixed area capacitor with change in permeability
Capacitive displacement detectors can detect
displacements with good stability, high speed,
and wide extremes of environment,
Range 0.2 - 10 mm
Resolution 0.015 % FSO
Linearity ± 0.1 % FSO
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Inductive (LVDT)
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer have a primary and two secondary coils,
which are arranged symmetrically to the primary winding.
• As a measurement object, a rod shaped magnetic core can be moved within
the differential transformer.
• An electronic oscillator supplies the primary coil with an alternating current
of constant frequency.
• The excitation is an alternating voltage with an amplitude of a few volts
and a frequency between 1 and 10 kHz.
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Inductive (LVDT)
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Inductive (LVDT)
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Inductive (RVDT)
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Inductive (Inductosyn)
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Inductive (Synchro)
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Inductive (Synchro)
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Resistive (Potentiometer)
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Resistive (Potentiometer)
Used in a joystick as axes input
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Optical (Encoders)
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Optical (Encoders)
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Position and Displacement Sensing
Optical (Encoders)
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Flow Sensing
Turbine Flow
meters
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Flow Sensing
Coriollis Flow meters
Based on Coriolis effect
Uses an actuator and
displacement sensors at two
points
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Flow Sensing
Coriollis Flow meters
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Vibration Sensing
Piezoelectric pickups
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Vibration Sensing
Piezoelectric pickups
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Vibration Sensing
Strain Gauge pickups
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Gas Sensors
The TGS sensor contains a semiconductor sensor, which is constructed on
Sn02-sintered N-substrate. When combustible or reducing gases are absorbed
by the surface of the sensor, the concentration of the test gas is determined by
the change in conductivity.
1 = Circuit voltage
2 = Heating voltage
3 = Load resistor
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Gas Sensors
The GOW sensor functions on the principle of thermal conductivity. Two rhenium-tungsten resistors
are used as a measuring element, where the comparison element is subjected to normal ambient air
and the measuring element is subjected to the test gas. Any change in the concentration of gas at the
measurement element causes a change in temperature, which is due to the variation of conductivity
1 = Diffusion filter
2 = Test resistor
3 = Comparison resistor
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Gas Sensors
VQ sensor
The head of the VQ sensor functions on the principle of heat reaction. When
combustible or reducing gases or vapours come in contact with the measuring
element, they are subjected to catalytic combustion, which causes a rise in
temperature; this rise causes a change in the resistance of the measuring
element which is used as a measure of the component of gas being tested.
1 = Catalyzer pellistor
2 = Electric connections
3 = Inert pellistor
4 = Diffusion filter
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Gas Sensors
TOX sensor
The TOX sensor is a measurement system with an electro-chemical cell, where the sampled gas is
measured by diffusion. In the case of oxygen measurement the oxygen content is reduced in an
electrolyte, thus producing a small flow of current (electro-chemical process). At a constant air
pressure, this current is directly proportional to the oxygen concentration in the sampled air
1 = Anode
2 = Electrolyte
3 = Cathode
4 = Diffusion path
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MEMs Sensors
Parallel plate capacitor Transverse Comb
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MEMs Sensors
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Sensors
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Smart Sensors
Smart Sensors feature the following capabilities
• Self Identification
• Smart Calibration and Compensation
• Digital Data
• Remote Monitoring and Configurations thru Wired/ wireless Communication
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