RUNOFF

Prepared by
Achyutha Anil
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
AITS,Trupati
Surface runoff (also known
as overland flow) is the flow of 
water that occurs when excess 
stormwater, meltwater, or other
sources flows over the 
Earth's surface.
Factors Affecting runoff

 Runoff rate and volume from an area mainly

influenced by following two factors

A. Climatic factors.

B. Physiographical Factors.
A. Climate factors:
It is associated with characteristics
of which includes.
1.Types of Precipitation:
It has great effect on the runoff. E.g. A precipitation
which occurs in the form of rainfall starts
immediately as surface runoff depending upon
rainfall intensity while precipitation in the form of
snow does not result in surface runoff.
 2. Rainfall Intensity:
If the rainfall intensity is greater than
infiltration rate of soil then runoff starts
immediately after rainfall. While in case of
low rainfall intensity runoff starts later.
Thus high intensities of rainfall yield
higher runoff.
 3. Duration of Rainfall:
It is directly related to the volume of runoff be
cause infiltration rate of soil decreases with
duration of rainfall. Therefore medium intensity
rainfall even results in considerable amount of
runoff if duration is longer.
 4. Rainfall Distribution:
Runoff from a watershed depends very much on the distribution of rainfall.
It is also expressed as “distribution coefficient” mean ratio of maximum
rainfall at a point to the mean rainfall of watershed. There fore, near outlet
of watershed runoff will be more.
 5. Direction of Prevailing Wind:
If the direction of prevailing wind is same
as drainage system, it results in peak   low.
A storm moving in the direction of stream
slope produce a higher peak in shorter
period of time than a storm moving in
opposite direction
 6. Other Climate Factor:

Other factors such as temperature wind

velocity, relative humidity, annual rainfall
etc. affect the water losses from watershed
area.
 B Physiographic Factors:
It includes both watershed and channel
characteristics, which area as follows,
 1. Size of Watershed:
A large watershed takes longer time for
draining the runoff to outlet than smaller
watershed and vise-versa.
 2. Shape of Watershed:
 Runoff is greatly affected by shape of watershed. Shape of watershed
is generally expressed by the term “form factor” and “compactness
coefficient”.
 Form Factor = Ratio of average width to axial length of watershed  
   = B/1     or      A/1/1      = A/I2
 Compactness Coefficient:
Ratio off perimeter of watershed to circumference of circle whose
area is equal to area of watershed
 Two types of shape:
Fun shape [tends to produce higher runoff very early]
Fern shape [tend to produced less runoff].
 3. Slope of Watershed:
It has complex effect. It controls the time
of overland flow and time of concentration
of rainfall. E.g. sloppy watershed results in
greater runoff due to greater runoff
velocity and vice-versa.
 4. Orientation of Watershed:
This affects the evaporation and transpiration
losses from the area. The north or south
orientation, affects the time of melting of
collected snow.
 5. Land Use:
Land use and land management practices have
great effect on the runoff yield. E.g. an area with
forest cover or thick layer of mulch of leaves and
grasses contribute less runoff because water is
absorbed more into soil.
 6. Soil moisture:
Magnitude of runoff yield depends upon the
initial moisture present in soil at the time of
rainfall. If the rain occurs after along dry spell
then infiltration rate is more, hence it contributes
less runoff.
 7. Soil type:
In filtration rate vary with type of soil. So runoff
is great affected by soil type.
 8. Topographic characteristics:
It includes those topographic features which affects the
runoff. Undulate land has greater runoff than flat land
because runoff water gets additional energy [velocity] due
to slope and little time to infill rate.
 9. Drainage Density:
It is defined as the ratio of the total channel length [L] in
the watershed to total watershed area [A]. Greater
drainage density gives more runoff
 Drainage density = L/A
 (OR)
 Factors Affecting Runoff
 The various factors which affect the runoff from a
drainage basin depend upon the following characteristics.
 1. Rainfall characteristics:
a. Type of storm and season 
b. Intensity 
c. Duration 
d. Arial Distribution 
e. Frequency
f. Antecedent precipitation
g. Direction of storm movement
 2. Metrological factors:
a. Temperature, 
b. Humidity
c. Wind velocity
d. Pressure difference
 3. Watershed Factor:
a. Size
b. Shape
c. Altitude
d. Topography
e. Geology [Soil type]
f. Land use [vegetation], Orientation
g. Type of drainage network
 4. Storage Characteristics:
a. Depressions 
b. Ponds, lakes and pools.
c. Stream 
d. Channels.
e. Check dams in gullies 
f. Upstream reservoirs or tanks.
g. Ground water storage in deposits/aquifers
 Defining the design flood
The Design Flood for a hydraulic structure may also be defined in a
number of ways, like:
• The maximum flood that any structure can safely pass.
• The flood considered for the design of a structure
corresponding to a maximum tolerable risk.
• The flood which a project (involving a hydraulic structure)
can sustain without any substantial damage, either to the
objects which it protects or to its own structures.
• The largest flood that may be selected for design as safety
evaluation of a structure.
 Design Flood is also known as the Inflow
Design Flood (IDF). It is the flood adopted
for design purpose, and could be:
 • The entire flood hydrograph, that is, the
possible values of discharge as a function
of time.
 • The peak discharge of the flood
hydrograph.
Methods of base flow separation
Method 1
One method to separate the base flow from the total
runoff hydrograph is to join points X and Z as shown
in Figure . This method is considered not very
accurate, though.
Version
 Method 2
This method suggests the extension of the base flow
graph (Figure ) along its general trend before the rise of
the hydrograph up to a point P directly below the runoff
hydrograph peak. From P, a straight line PQ is drawn to
meet the hydrograph at point Q, which as separated from
P in the time scale by an empirical relation given as:
N (in days) = 0.862 A0.2
Where, A is the area of the drainage basin in square
kilometers.
 Method 3
 The third method makes use of composite base
flow recession curve, as shown in Figure 9. The
following points are to be kept in mind:
X – A follows the trend of the initial base flow
recession curve prior to the start of the direct
runoff hydrograph
B – Q follows the trend of the later stage base
flow recession curve.
B is chosen to lie below the point of inflection (C)
of the hydrograph.
The hydrograph after separating and the base flow results in what is
called the Direct Runoff Hydrograph.
Flood and runoff estimation methods

Indirect methods (equations): Direct methods (measurements):

a. SCS Curve number method a. Current meter

b. Talbot’s equation b. Crest stage gauge
c. Creager’s equation c. Staff gauge
d. Rational method
e. Unit hydrograph
SCS Curve Number Method
• The SCS curve number method is a simple, widely used
and efficient method for determining the approximate
amount of runoff from a rainfall even in a particular
area.
• This method is designed for a single storm event. The
statistical data required for this method is rainfall
amount and curve number.
• The curve number is based on the area's hydrologic soil
group, land use pattern & hydrological condition.
SCS Curve Number Method
The runoff volume (Q) resulting from a given rainfall storm
(P) is calculated using the following formula:

The above equation for Q is empirical where: Q=

Runoff
P= Rainfall
S= Potential maximum retention after runoff begins
CN= Weighted Curve number, parameter which takes
into account properties of the area
Rational method
For hydraulic designs on very small watersheds, a
complete hydrograph of runoff is not always required. The
maximum, or peak, of the hydrograph is sufficient for
design of the structure in question. Therefore, a number of
methods for estimating a design discharge, that is, the
maximum value of the flood runoff hydrograph, have been
developed. The rational method is a simple technique for
estimating a design discharge from a small watershed. It
was developed by Kuichling (1889) for small drainage
basins in urban areas.
Rational method
Application of the rational method is based on a simple
formula that relates runoff producing potential of the
watershed, the average intensity of rainfall for a particular
length of time (the time of concentration), and the
watershed drainage area. The
formula is:
Q
0.278CiA
Q = design discharge (m3/t),
C = runoff coefficient (dimensionless),
i = design rainfall intensity (m/t), and
A = watershed drainage area (m2).
Rational method
 Runoff coefficient: The runoff
coefficient C, is a dimensionless ratio
intended to indicate the amount of runoff
generated by a watershed given a average
intensity of precipitation for a storm.

R = Total depth of runoff (m)

P = Total depth of precipitation (m)
Runoff Coefficients for the
Rational Method
Type of drainage area Runoff coefficient
Steep, bare rock 0.90
Rock, steep but wooded 0.80
Plateaus lightly covered, ordinary ground bare 0.70
Densely built up areas of cities with metal led roads & paths 0.70-0.90
Residential areas not densely built up, with metal led roads 0.50-0.70
Residential areas not densely built up, with unmetalled roads 0.20-0.50
Clayey soils, stiff and bare 0.60
Clayey soils lightly covered 0.50
Loam, lightly cultivated or covered 0.40
Loam, lightly, largely cultivated 0.30
Suburbs with gardens, lawns and macadamized roads 0.30
Sandy soil, light growth 0.20
 Rational method
The rainfall intensity (i) in millimeters per hour for duration
corresponding to the time of concentration for the catchment area
and having a recurrence period appropriate to the site
conditions, is read from IDF curves (plot between intensity and
duration).

Time of concentration is defined as the interval time in

minutes from the beginning of rainfall to the time when water
from the most remote position of the catchment reaches the
outlet.

Time of concentration can be calculated using Kirkpich formula:

Tc  (1/ 52)L / 1.155

H length (in
L=
0.385 of main channel
m)
TALBOT’s
Method
In Talbot’s method, design flood is related to
morphological properties of the catchment. Design flood
discharge (Q), in m3 /sec, can be calculated using the
following formula:
Q  aCA n

Where, Q= Design flood discharge(m3 /sec) a=

Required section of waterway
C= Weighted Talbot’s runoff coefficient A= Drainage
area
n= flood index
TALBOT’s
Method
Runoff coefficients according to catchment characteristics:
Catchments characteristics C
C1 = Terrain condition
0.30
Mountains
0.20
Semi-mountains Low lands
0.10

C2 = Slope of drainage area above 15%

0.5
10 – 15 %
0.4
5 – 10 %
0.23
2- 5 %
0.25
1–2%
0.2

C3 = Shape of drainage area When width

0.30
equals length When width equals 0.4 of
0.20
length When width equals 0.2 of length
0.10
Creager’s
Method

Where:
•Qm = Maximum or peak flow for a given return period.
•A =Catchment area (Sq. Km).
•C1 =Creagers number (max. 130).
Other empirical formulaes used
in India
Dicken’s formula Ryve’s formula
• Q=CA^(3/4) • Q = CA^(2/3)

C= 11.4 for North India C = varies from 6.8 to 15 kms

C= 13.9 to 19.5 for Central C = 6.75 if area is less than 24
India C= 22.5 to 25 for kms from coast
Western India A= Area in Sq. C = 8.45 if area is 24 - 16 kms
Km C = 10.1 for hills
Q = Discharge in cumecs A=
Area in Sq. km
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