General Psychology

Psyc 1011

By: Aman A.
 Chapter 1: Essence of Psychology
1.1. Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts
*Dear student, what comes to your mind when you hear about
the word psychology?
 The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek
words 'psyche' and ‘logos’.
 Psyche = mind, soul or sprit while
 Logos = study, knowledge or discourse.
 Psychology refers to the study of the mind, soul, or
sprit and it is often represented by the Greek letter ᴪ
(psi), read as "sy".
Defn conti…
 Psychology is the scientific study of human
behavior and the underlying mental process.
 From this definition, there are three basic
aspects seeking further elaboration:
1. Science: is a group of related facts and principles
of a particular subject.
In science we collect related facts by the use of
objective methods to develop a theory & to
explain those facts.
So, as a science, psychology uses scientific
methods & use empirical data to study behavior
and mental processes in both humans and animals.
Defn conti…
2. Behavior: refers to all of our outward/overt
actions and reactions, such as talking, facial
expressions, movement, etc.
There is also covert behavior which is hidden, non-
observable and generally considered as a mental
process.
3. Mental processes: refer to all the internal, covert
activities of our minds, such as thinking, feeling,
remembering, etc.
1.2. Goals of Psychology
 As a science, psychology has four goals;
description, explanation, prediction, and
control.
1. Description: involves observing the behavior
and noticing everything about it.
 It is a search for answers for questions like
 What is happening?
 Where does it happen?
 To whom does it happen? and
 Under what circumstances does it seem to happen?
Goals conti…
2. Explanation: Why is it happening? It is about
trying to find reasons for the observed
behavior.
3. Prediction: is about determining what will
happen in the future.
4. Control: How can it be changed? Control or
modify or change the behavior from
undesirable one (such as failing in school) to a
desirable one (such as academic success).
Exercise: Discuss on the relationship and
difference between the four goals of
psychology?
1.3. Historical Background and Major Perspectives
in Psychology
 Psychology is a relatively new field in the realm of
the sciences, only about 125 years old.
 It began as a science of its own in 1879 in Leipzig,
Germany, with the establishment of a psychology
laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt.
 Wundt developed the technique of objective
introspection to scientifically examine mental
experiences.
 Thus, Wundt is considered as a “father of modern
psychology”.
Histo conti…
 Once psychology begun to use the scientific
method, it then went through successive
developments in which different schools of
thought emerged at different times.
 These schools of thought can be categorized as
early and modern as described below.
A. Early schools of psychology
 Dear student, what do you think is a school of thought?
 A school of thought is a system of thinking about
certain issue (e.g. behavior).
Histo conti…
 For example, think that human behavior is all
the result of inheritance or say it is all the
result of interaction with the environment.
 The first system of thinking takes a biological
approach and the later takes an environmental
approach.
 Psychology as a discipline, is embedded in
different systems of thought from its inception.
Histo conti…
 There are five early schools of psychology.
1. Structuralism: views psychology as a study of
structure of mind.
 Titchener (Wundt’s student) is the founder of
structuralism.
 The goal of structuralists was to find out the
elements, which make up the mind; sensations,
images, and feelings.
 The best-known method used by them was
introspection “looking inward into our
consciousness”.
 It is a procedure aimed at analyzing the mental
experience into three basic mental elements:
images, feelings, and sensations.
Histo conti…
 Analyzing mental structure alone was found to
serve little purpose in helping humans deal
with the environment.
 Hence, a new school of thought emerged to
study this functional value of human mind -
Functionalism.
2. Functionalism: views psychology as a study
of function of the mind.
 The founder of Functionalism is William
James (1848-1910); the first American
psychologist and the author of the first
psychology textbook.
Histo conti…
 James focused on how the mind allows people to
function in the real world; how people work, play,
and adapt to their surroundings.
 Hence, the goal of functionalism is to study how
mind affects what people do.
 He developed many research methods other than
introspection including questionnaires, mental
tests and objective descriptions of behavior.
 Generally, according to functionalists,
psychological processes are adaptive.
 They allow humans to survive and to adapt
successfully to their surroundings.
Histo conti…
 It was believed that human mind is more than the
sum of sensations as well as adaptive functions.
3. Gestalt psychology: views psychology as a study
of the whole mind.
 The German word "gestalt" means to form,
whole, configuration or pattern.
 Max Wertheimer and his colleagues founded this
school of thought in Germany in the 20th
century.
 The goal of gestalt psychology is to see the
holistic nature of mind.
 Gestalt psychology uses a method of
introspection and demonstration.
Histo conti…
 Gestalt psychologists argued that the mind is
not made up of combinations of elements
(sensation, feeling and image).
 Gestalt psychologists acknowledge
consciousness.
 They held that “the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts”.
 Means mind is greater than its parts (images,
sensations, and feelings).
Histo conti…
 Generally what is common to all the three schools of thought is the
fact that they all try to examine the human mind; which is an
internal, non-visible, and hidden experience of human beings.

 Although it could be useful to understand this experience, it was

believed that this subjective, private experience can‘t be observable,
measurable, and hence can’t be studied scientifically.

 Hence, for psychology to become scientific, it needs to get rid of

dealing with subjectivity in all its forms and rather focus on
studying behavior.

 This has led to the birth of a new paradigm of thought about

psychology called behaviorism.
Histo conti…
4. Behaviorism: view psychology as a study of observable and
measurable behaviors.

 John B. Watson is the founder of behaviorism.

 For Watson, psychology was the study of observable and

measurable behavior and nothing more about hidden mental
processes.

 As to Watson, behaviorism had three other important

characteristics in addition to its focus on behavior; conditioned
response as the building blocks of behavior, learned rather
than unlearned behaviors, and focus on animal behavior.
 Conti…
 He believed that all behaviors are learned but
not inherited and learners are passive (they
are not initiating their learning but they
respond when the environment stimulates
them).
 Behaviorism uses observation and
experimentation as a method of study of overt
behavior.
 The goal of behaviorism is to see the effect of
environment on behavior.
Histo conti…
5. Psychoanalysis: views psychology as the study about the
components of the unconscious mind.
 The founder of this approach is Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) .
 As a physician, Sigmund Freud became convinced that some
of the physical illnesses of his patients didn’t have bodily
causes; but emotional causes.
 He called these kinds of illnesses as ‘hysteria’ or conversion
reaction to indicate the conversion of emotional problems into
bodily problems.
 He also give emphasis to the conflicts and emotional
traumas that had occurred in early childhood can be too
threatening to be remembered consciously and therefore
they become hidden and then will affect later behavior.
Histo conti…
 Freud argued that conscious awareness is the tip
of the mental iceberg beneath the visible tip
lays the unconscious part of the mind.
 The unconscious which is the subject matter of
psychoanalysis contains hidden wishes,
passions, guilty secrets, unspeakable yearnings,
and conflicts between desire and duty.
 We are not aware of our unconscious urges and
thoughts and they make themselves known in
dreams, slip of the tongue, apparent accidents
and even jokes.
 Freud used clinical case studies like hypnosis and
Dream analysis as a method.
Histo conti…
B. Modern schools of psychology
 The early schools of thought have generally
laid the foundation for further developments in
psychology as a science.
 They opened a door for taking multiple
perspectives in explaining human behavior and
mental processes.
 The predominate modern schools of thoughts
today are psychodynamic, behavioral,
humanistic, cognitive, biological, and socio-
cultural perspectives.
Histo conti…
1. Psychodynamic perspective
 Has its origins in psychoanalysis, but many other
psychodynamic theories exist.
 emphasizes the unconscious dynamics within the
individual such as inner forces, conflicts or
instinctual energy.
 The psychodynamic approach emphasizes:
 The influence of unconscious mental process on
behavior,
 The role of childhood experiences in shaping adult
personality, and
 The role of intrapersonal conflict in determining human
behavior.
 Psychodynamic perspective tries to dig below the
surface of a person's behavior to get into unconscious
motives; psychodynamists think of themselves as
archaeologists of the mind.
Histo conti…
2. Behavioral Perspective
 Stresses on the role, learning experiences play in
shaping the behavior of an organism.
 It is concerned with how the environment affects the
person’s actions.
 Behaviorists focus on environmental conditions like
rewards and punishments that encourage &
discourage behaviors.
 Is sometimes called the "black box" approach
because it treats the mind as less useful in
understanding human behavior and focus on what
goes in to and out of the box, but not on the processes
that take place inside.
 This means, behaviorists are only interested in the
effects of the environment (input) on behavior
(output) but not in the process inside the box.
Histo conti…
3. Humanistic Perspective
 According to this perspective, human behavior is
not determined either by unconscious dynamics or
the environment.
 Rather it emphasizes the uniqueness of human
beings and focuses on human values and
subjective experiences.
 This perspective places greater importance on the
individual’s free will.
 The goal of humanistic psychology was helping
people to express themselves creatively and
achieve their full potential or self-actualization
(developing the human potential to its fullest).
Histo conti…
4. Cognitive Perspective
 emphasizes what goes on in people’s heads; how
people reason, remember, understand language,
solve problems, explain experiences and form
beliefs.
 Is concerned about the mental processes.
 They tried to show how people’s thoughts and
explanations affect their actions, feelings, and
choices.
 Techniques used to explore behavior from a
cognitive perspective include electrical recording
of brain activity, electrical stimulation and
radioactive tracing of metabolic activity in the
nervous system.
Histo conti…
5. Biological Perspective
 Focuses on studying how bodily functioning of
the body affects behavior, feelings, and thoughts.
 It holds that the brain and various brain
chemicals affect psychological processes like
learning, performance, perception of reality, the
experience of emotions, etc.
 It underlines that biology and behavior interact in
a complex way; biology affecting behavior and
behavior in turn affecting biology.
 It also emphasizes the idea that genetic heritage
can predispose us to behaving in a certain way.
Histo conti…
6. Socio-cultural Perspective
 focuses on the social and cultural factors that
affect human behavior.
 Social factors like group membership, authority
and other people (like spouse, lovers, friends,
etc.) affects attitudes and behaviors of each of us.
 Cultural factors like cultural rules and values
(both explicit and implicit) affect people's
development, behavior, and feelings.
 This perspective holds that humans are both the
products and the producers of culture, and our
behavior always occurs in some cultural
contexts.
1.4. Branches of Psychology
 Psychology has become a very diverse field today that there
are different branches which psychologists can pursue to study.
 Some of the branches of psychology includes but not limited
to:
1. Developmental psychology: – studies the physical, cognitive
and psychological changes across the life span. It attempts to
examine the major developmental milestones that occur at
different stages of development.
2. Personality Psychology: – focuses on the relatively enduring
traits and characteristics of individuals.
3. Social Psychology: – deals with people’s social interactions,
relationships, social perception, and attitudes.
Branch conti…
4. Cross-cultural Psychology: - examines the role of
culture in understanding behavior, thought, and
emotion. It compares the nature of psychological
processes in different cultures, with a special interest in
whether or not psychological phenomena are universal
or culture-specific.
5. Industrial psychology: – applies psychological
principles in industries and organizations to increase the
productivity of that organization.
6. Forensic psychology: - applies psychological
principles to improve the legal system (police,
testimony, etc...).
7. Educational Psychology - concerned with the
application of psychological principles and theories in
improving the educational process including
curriculum, teaching, and administration of academic
programs.
Branch conti…
8. Health Psychology: - applies psychological
principles to the prevention and treatment of
physical illness and diseases.
9. Clinical Psychology: - is a field that applies
psychological principles to the prevention,
diagnosis, and treatment of psychological
disorders.
10. Counseling Psychology: - is a field having
the same concern as clinical psychology but
helps individuals with less severe problems
than those treated by clinical psychologists.
1.5. Research Methods in Psychology
 Before discussing the types of research
methods; we have to see the following
important terms.
Scientific method - a process of testing ideas
through systematic observations, experimentations,
and statistical analysis.
Theory - is an integrated set of principles about
observed facts that is intended to describe and
explain some aspects of experience.
Hypotheses - is a tentative proposition/gues about
the relationship between two or more variables or
phenomena.
Research cont…
Major types of research methods
 There are three major types of research methods:
descriptive, correlational and experimental research
methods.
1. Descriptive Research: - type of research in w/c the
researcher simply records what she/he has
systematically observed.
 Descriptive research methods include naturalistic
observation, case studies, and surveys.
Conti…
i. Naturalistic observation: is a descriptive
research method in which subjects are
observed in their natural environment to get a
real (not artificial) picture of how behavior
occurs.
 Limitations of naturalistic observation are:
 Observer effect - animals or people who know
they are being watched may behave artificially,
and
 Observer bias - the researcher may observe
behaviors he/she wants to observe and ignores
others.
Conti…
ii. Case study: is a descriptive technique in
which an individual is studied in great detail.
 Its advantage is that it provides tremendous
amount of data about a single case or
individual.
 The disadvantage of case study is that the
researchers can’t apply the results to other
similar people; what researchers find in one
case can’t necessarily be applied or
generalized to others.
Conti…
iii. Survey: is a descriptive research method
used to collect data from a very large group
of people.
 It is useful to get information on private
(covert) behaviors and it addresses hundreds of
people with the same questions at the same
time.
 Its disadvantage is that it needs a careful
selection of a representative sample of the
actual population.
Conti…
2. Correlational Research - is a research method that
measures the relationship between two or more
variables.
 Variable is anything that can change or vary – scores
on a test, the temperature in a room and so on.
 Although correlation tells researchers if there is a
relationship between variables, how strong the
relationship is, and in what direction the relationship
goes, it doesn‘t show the cause and effect relationship.
 For example, a r/ship between cigarette smoking and
life expectancy.
 This means, for example, that if there is a relationship
between smoking and lung cancer, this doesn’t mean
that smoking causes lung cancer.
Conti…
3. Experimental Research: is a research method that
allows researchers to study the cause and effect
relationship between variables.
 In experimental research, a carefully regulated
procedure in which one or more factors believed to
influence the behavior being studied are manipulated
and all other factors are held constant.
 Experiment involves at least one independent variable
and one dependent variable.
 The independent variable is the manipulated,
influential, experimental factor.
 The dependent variable is the factor that is measured in
an experiment.
 It can change as the independent variable is
manipulated.
 Conti…
 For example, a researcher may need to know
whether or not class size has an effect on
students’ academic performance and
hypothesizes as “students in small class size
have better academic performance than
students in large class size.”
 In this statement, the researcher has two
variables:
class size, which is the independent variable to be
manipulated and
students’ performance which is the dependent
variable to be measured while class size is
changed.
Conti…
 Experiments also involve randomly assigned
experimental groups and control groups.
 An experimental group is a group whose experience is
manipulated.
 For example, students who are assigned in small class sizes.
 A control group is a comparison that is treated in every
way like the experimental group except for the
manipulated factor (class size).
 For example, the group of students who are assigned in
large class sizes.
 The control group serves as a baseline against which the
effects of the manipulated condition can be compared.
 Although experimental research is useful to discover causes
of behaviors, it must be done carefully because
expectations and biases on the part of both the
researcher and participants can affect the results.
Conti…
Steps of scientific research
 In scientific research, there are at least five major
steps to be followed.
Step1: Defining the Problem
 Noticing something attention catching in the
surrounding for which one would like to have an
explanation.
 E.g, you may notice that children seem to get a little
more aggressive with each other after watching
practically violent children’s cartoon videos.
 You wonder if the violence in the cartoon video
could be creating aggressive behavior on the
children.
 Hence, you may raise a research problem focusing
on the effect of aggressive videos on children’s
behavior.
Conti…
Step2: Formulating the Hypothesis
 After having an observation on surroundings
(perceiving the problem), you might form an
educated guess about the explanation for your
observations, putting it into the form of a
statement that can be tested in some way.
 E.g., you might formulate a hypothesis as
“children who watch violent cartoons will
become more aggressive than those who watch
non-violent cartoons”.
Conti…
Step3: Testing the Hypothesis
 at this step, the researcher employs appropriate
research methods and collects ample data
(information) to accept or reject the proposed
statement.
 E.g., in the example above, the data will be
gathered from children who watch
aggressive videos and from those who do not
watch aggressive videos and make
comparisons between the behaviors of the
two groups to determine whether watching
aggressive video makes children more
aggressive.
Conti…
Step4: Drawing Conclusions
 This is a step in which the researcher attempts to
make generalizations or draw implications from
tested relationship.
Step5: Reporting Results
 At this point, the researcher would want to write
up exactly what she/he did, why she/he did, and
what she/he found.
 So that, others can learn from what she/he has
already accomplished, or failed to accomplish.
 This allows others to predict and modify behavior
based on the findings.
Chapter 2: Sensation and Perception
2.1. The meanings of sensation and perception
 Sensation is the process whereby stimulation of receptor
cells in the sense organs sends nerve impulses to the
brain.
 Sensations are closely tied to what is happening in the
sensory systems themselves.
 Color, brightness, the pitch of tone or a bitter taste are
examples of sensations.
 The starting point of sensations is a stimulus - a form of
energy (such as light waves or sound waves) that can
affect sense organs (eye, ear…).
 Sensation is therefore the process that detects the
stimulus from one’s body and or from the environment.
Sens conti…
 Perception is the process whereby the brain
interprets sensations and organizes
sensations into meaningful patterns.
 Thus, hearing sounds and seeing colors is
largely a sensory process, but forming a
melody and detecting patterns and shapes is
largely a perceptual process.
 As soon as the brain receives sensations, it
automatically perceives and interprets them,
and without sensations of some kind
perception could not occur.
Conti…
2.2. The sensory laws: Sensory thresholds and
sensory adaption.
 There are certain sensory laws that explain
how sensation works.
 Sensory threshold and sensory adaptation
are the two general laws of sensation.
 Sensory threshold is the minimum point of
intensity a sound can be detected.
 There are two laws of sensory threshold: The
law of absolute threshold and the law of
difference threshold.
 Conti…
A. The absolute threshold
 The minimum amount of stimulation a person can
detect.
 for example, a cup of coffee would require a
certain amount of sugar before you could detect a
sweet taste.
 the absolute threshold for a particular sensory
experience varies,
 So, psychologists operationally defined the
absolute threshold as the minimum level of
stimulation that can be detected 50 percent of
the time when a stimulus is presented over and
over again.
Conti…
 E.g., if you were presented with a low intensity
sound 30 times and detected it 15 times, that
level of intensity would be your absolute
threshold for that stimulus.
 Researchers assume that the detection of a
stimulus depends on or affected by both its
intensity and the physical and psychological
state of the individual.
 One of the most important psychological
factors is the response bias - how ready the
person is to report the presence of a particular
stimulus.
Conti…
B. The difference threshold
 In addition to detecting the presence of a
stimulus, you also detect changes in the
intensity of a stimulus.
 The minimum amount of change that can be
detected is called difference threshold.
 For example, a cup of coffee would require a
certain amount of additional sugar before you
could detect an increase in its sweetness.
Conti…
 Like the absolute threshold, the difference
threshold for a particular sensory experience
varies from person to person and from
occasion to occasion.
 Therefore, psychologists formally define the
difference threshold as the minimum change
in stimulation that can be detected 50 percent
of the time by a given person.
 This difference in threshold is called the just
noticeable difference (jnd).
Conti…
 The amount of change in intensity of
stimulation needed to produce a jnd is a
constant fraction of the original stimulus.
 This became known as Weber’s law.
 E.g., because the jnd for weight is about 2%
and you held a 50 ounce for weight you would
notice a change only if there was at least one
ounce change in it.
 But a person holding a 100 ounce weight
would require the addition or subtraction of at
least 2 ounce to notice a change.
Conti…
C. Sensory Adaptation
 is a tendency of our sensory receptors to have
decreasing responsiveness to unchanging
stimulus.
 One possible reason is that if a stimulus
remains constant in intensity, you will
gradually stop noticing it.
 E.g., after diving into a swimming pool, you
might shiver. Yet a few minutes later you
might not notice the coldness.
Conti…
 Of course, you will not adapt completely to
extremely intense sensations, such as severe
pain or freezing cold.
 This is adaptive, because ignoring such stimuli
might be harmful or even fatal.
Conti…
Perception and Perceptual Processes
 Perception is a meaning making process and
the major characteristics of the perceptual
process include: selectivity of perception, form
perception, depth perception, perceptual
constancy, and perceptual illusion.
 Perception: is also a process of selecting,
organizing, & interpreting sensory information
into meaningful patterns.
 It is the mental organization and interpretation
of sensory information.
 Perceptual process consists of the following
three basic processes:
Conti…
1. Selectivity of perception: Attention
 We experience different stimuli at the same time. But we
attend only some of them at a time.
 Selective attention means at any moment our awareness
focuses, on only a limited aspect of all that we experience.
 When we focus on one stimulus we become unaware of other
stimulus around us. But we can shift our attention at any time.
 Such selective perception is called attention.
 Therefore, attention is the perceptual process that selects
certain inputs for inclusion in your conscious experience at
any given time while ignoring others.
Conti…
 What does this selectivity of perception imply?
 The selectivity of perception implies, among other things, that
our field of experience is divided into two:“Focus” and
“Margin”.
 Stimuli that you perceive clearly are the focus of your
experience and other stimuli that you perceive dimly or
vaguely are in the margin of your attention.
 You may be aware of items in the marginal field but only
vaguely or partially
Conti…
Factors Affecting Selective Perception: attention
 Several external and internal factors determine or
affect our selective attention to some stimuli. The
following are some of the external and internal
factors.
A. External Factors
 External factors refer to factors that are generally
found in the objects or stimuli to be perceived.
 Size
 Intensity
 Repetition
 Motion
 Novelty and Familiarity
 Conti…
B. Internal Factors (Physiological Factors)
 Motivation
 Emotion
 Personality and interest
Conti…
2. Perceptual organization (Gestalt Principles of
Perceptual Organization)
 According to Gestalt psychology, all humans
organize or group piece of information into
meaningful patterns or the whole - we view the
whole rather than parts.
 They propose major perceptual rules the brain
follows automatically and consciously.
The Principles of Perceptual Organization
A. Figure-Ground Relationship - is the process of
identifying a figure from its back ground so as to
perceive meaning.
 Conti…
B. Closure: - The perceptual tendency to fill in
the gaps and complete the contours/line;
perceiving the disconnected parts as the whole
object.
C. Proximity: - things close or near in place and
time together are grouped together.
D. Similarity: - The tendency to perceive
objects, patterns or stimuli which are similar in
appearance as a group.
E. Continuity: - perceiving certain object as
continues.
 Conti…
3. Perceptual Interpretation
 It is the process of generating meaning from
sensory experiences.
 The processes of perceptual organization organize
sensation into stable, recognizable forms, but they
do not endow them with meaning, it does not
classify objects and it doesn’t determine objects’
emotional or adaptive significance.
 Generating meaning from sensory experience is
the task of perceptual interpretation.
 Perceptual interpretation lies at the intersection of
sensation and memory, as the brain interprets
current sensations in light of past experience.
Chapter 3: Learning And Theories Of Learning
3.1. Definition, Characteristics and Principles of Learning
3.1.1. Definitions of learning
 Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
occurring as a result of experience or practice. This definition
emphasizes four attributes of learning:
 Learning is a change in behavior.
 Change in behavior is relatively permanent.
 It does not include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation
and use of intoxicant.
 Permanent change in behavior is not because of
biological factors (like hormonal changes) that bring
permanent changes in behavior; but because of experience, or
practice.
 The learning is not directly observable but manifests in the
activities of the individual.
 Conti…
3.1.2. Characteristics of Learning
1. Learning is continuous modification of behavior
throughout life
2. Learning is pervasive/omnipresent or persistent; it
reaches into all aspects of human life.
3. Learning involves the whole person, socially,
emotionally & intellectually.
4. Learning is often a change in the organization of
experiences.
5. Learning is responsive to incentives
6. Learning is an active process
7. Learning is purposeful
8. Learning depends on maturation, motivation and
practice.
9. Learning is multifaceted
 Conti…
3.1.3. Principles of learning
There are important principles that help explaining
how learning occurs effectively.
 Some of the most important principles of learning
are as follows:
 Individuals learn best when they are physically,
mentally, and emotionally ready to learn.
 Students learn best and retain information longer
when they have meaningful practice and exercise
 Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a
pleasant feeling, and that learning is weakened
when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
 Conti..
 Things learned first create a strong impression
in the mind that is difficult to erase.
 Things most recently learned are best
remembered.
 A student will learn more from the real thing
than from a substitute.
 Individuals must have some abilities and skills
that may help them to learn.
 Things freely learned are best learned - the
greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals, the
higher the intellectual and moral advancement.
 Conti…
3.2. Factors Influencing Learning
1. Motivation: The learner‘s motivation matters the
effectiveness of learning. The stronger and clearer the
motives for learning, the greater are the effort to learn.
2. Maturation: Neuro-muscular coordination is important for
learning a given task.
3. Health condition of the learner: The learner should be in
a good health status to learn.
4. Psychological wellbeing of the learner: individual’s
psychological states like worries, fears, feelings of
loneliness and inferiority hinders learning. Whereas self-
respect, self-reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for
effective learning.
5. Good working conditions – absence or presence of
fresh air, light, comfortable surroundings, moderate
temperature, absence of distractions like noise and learning
aids determine learning effectiveness.
 Conti…
6. Background experiences: having
background experiences affect effectiveness of
learning.
7. Length of the working period: Learning
periods should neither be too short nor too
long.
8. Massed and distributed learning: Learning
that spreads across time with reasonable time
gaps brings better results compared with
crammed learning that occurs at once or within
short span of time.
 Conti…
3.3. Theories of Learning and their
Applications
3.3.1. Behavioral Theory of Learning
 Behavioral theory of learning believes that
learning occurs as a result of stimulus-
response associations.
 Behavioral theories emphasize observable
behaviors, seek laws to govern all
organisms, and provide explanations which
focus on consequences.
 There are two major behavioral theories of
learning: classical and operant conditioning.
 Conti…
3.3.1.1. Classical conditioning theory
 Classical conditioning is a type of learning in
which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about
a response after it is paired with a stimulus
that naturally brings about that response.
 Classical conditioning focuses on the learning
of making involuntary emotional or
physiological responses to stimuli that
normally elicit no response.
 The theory of classical conditioning represents
a process in which a neutral stimulus, by
pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all
the characteristics of natural stimulus.
 Classical conditioning involves what are known
as conditioned reflexes/reactions.
 Conti…
Basics of Classical Condition
 Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning,
does not naturally bring about the response of interest.
 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally
brings about a particular response without having been
learned.
 Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is
natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell
of food).
 Conditioned stimulus (CS): once a neutral stimulus that
has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring
about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned
stimulus.
 Conditioned response (CR): A response that, after
conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g.,
salivation at the ringing of a bell).
 Conti..
 It is sometimes called substitution learning
because it involves substituting a neutral
stimulus in place of natural stimulus.
 The theory states that the responses
originally made to unconditioned stimulus
becomes associated with the conditioned
stimulus and what is learned is a conditioned
stimulus - conditioned response bond of
some kind.
 To make this explanation clear, let us
consider Pavlov‘s experiment.
 Conti…
 In the Pavlov’s classical conditioning
experiment, the food was an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) - stimulus that automatically
produces an emotional or physiological
response - because no prior training or
“conditioning” was needed to establish the
natural connection between food and salvation.
 The salivation was an unconditioned
response (UCR) - naturally occurring
emotional or physiological response again
because it occurred automatically, no
conditioning required.
 Conti…
 Using these three elements- the food, the salivation, and the
bell sound - Pavlov demonstrated that a dog could be
conditioned to salivate after hearing the bell sound.
 He did this by contiguous pairing of the sound with food.
 At the beginning of the experiment, he sounded the bell and
then quickly fed the dog.
 After Pavlov repeated this several times, the dog began to
salivate after hearing the sound but before receiving the
food.
 Now the sound had become a conditioned stimulus (CS) -
stimulus that evokes a physiological response after
conditioning - that could bring forth salivation by itself.
 The response of salivating after the tone was a
conditioned response (CR) - learned response to a
previously neutral stimulus.
 Conti…
Principles of Classical Condition
 The basic principles of classical conditioning include
the role of stimulus generalization, stimulus
discriminations, extinction and spontaneous recovery.
A. Stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination
 Stimulus generalization is a process in which, after a
stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular
response, stimuli that are similar to the original
stimulus begin to produce the same responses.
 E.g., a dog conditioned to salivate to a dinner bell (CS)
might also salivate to a door bell.
 Stimulus discrimination is the process of
distinguishing two similar stimuli; the ability to
differentiate between stimuli.
 E.g., the dog salivates only in response to the dinner bell
instead of the doorbell.
 Conti…
B. Extinction and spontaneous recovery
 Extinction: In Pavlov’s procedure, if a CS is
repeatedly presented without presenting the UCS
(meat), the CR will diminish and eventually stop
occurring called extinction.
 Extinction only inhibits/reduces the CR, it does
not eliminate it.
 Spontaneous recovery is the reemergence of
an extinguished conditioned response after a
period of rest and with no further conditioning.
 In spontaneous recovery, the CR is weaker
and extinguishes faster than it did
originally.
 Conti…
3.3.1.2. Operant/Instrumental conditioning
 Operant conditioning is learning in which a
voluntary response is strengthened or weakened,
depending on its favorable or unfavorable
consequences.
 An emphasis on environmental consequences
is at the heart of Operant Conditioning
 also called Instrumental Conditioning.
 In operant conditioning, the organism's response
operates or produces effects on the environment.
 These effects, in turn, influence, whether the
response will occur again.
 Conti…
 Unlike classical conditioning, in which the original
behaviors are the natural, operant conditioning
applies to voluntary responses, which an organism
performs deliberately to produce a desirable
outcome.
 The term operant emphasizes: The organism
operates on its environment to produce a desirable
result.
 Skinner argued that, to understand behavior, we
should focus on the external causes of an action
and the action’s consequences & and to explain
behavior, we should look outside the individual, not
inside.
 In Skinner’s analysis, a response (“operant”) can lead to
three types of consequences: such as
a) A neutral consequence b) A reinforcement c)
punishment
 Conti…
a) A neutral Consequence that does not alter the
response.
b) A reinforcement is a consequence of behavior that
strengthens the response or makes it more likely to
recur.
 A reinforcer is any event that increases the probability
that the behavior that precedes it will be repeated.
 There are two basic types of reinforcers: primary
and secondary reinforcers.
 Primary reinforcers: Food, water, light, stroking
of the skin, and a comfortable air temperature are
naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological
needs.
 Primary reinforcers, have the ability to strengthen a
behavior without prior learning.
 Conti…
 Secondary Reinforcers: Behaviors can be
controlled by secondary reinforcers.
 They reinforce behavior because of their prior
association with primary reinforcing stimuli.
 Money, praise, applause, good grades, awards,
and gold stars are common secondary reinforcers.
 Both primary and secondary reinforcers can be
positive or negative.
 Positive reinforcement is the process whereby
presentation of a stimulus makes behavior more
likely to occur again.
 Negative reinforcement is the process
whereby termination of an aversive stimulus
makes behavior more likely to occur.
 Conti…
 The basic principle of negative reinforcement is
that eliminating something aversive can itself be a
reward.
 For example, if someone nags you all the time to study,
but stops nagging when you comply, your studying is
likely to increase- because you will then avoid the
nagging.
 This can be an example of what is called escape
learning.
 In escape learning, animals learn to make a response
that terminates/stops a painful or unpleasant stimulus.
 Another kind of learning, which is similar, but not the
same as escape learning is Avoidance Learning, which
refers to learning to avoid a painful stimulus prior to
exposure.
 Conti…
Schedules of reinforcement
1. Continuous reinforcement: the response is reinforced each time it
occurs.
 This procedure is called continuous reinforcement.
2. Intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement, which
involves reinforcing only some responses, not all of them.
 There are four types of intermittent schedules.
1. Fixed-ratio schedules of reinforcement: occurs after a fixed
number of responses.
 They produce high rate of responding.
2. Variable-Ratio Schedule of reinforcement: occurs after some
average number of responses, but the number varies from
reinforcement to reinforcement.
 A variable ratio schedule of reinforcement produces extremely
high steady rates of responding.
 The responses are more resistant to extinction than when a fixed
ratio schedule is used.
 Conti…
3. Fixed Interval Schedule of reinforcement
occurs only if a fixed amount of time has
passed since the previous reinforcer.
4. Variable Interval Schedule: reinforcement
occurs only if a variable amount of time has
passed since the previous reinforcer.
 if you want a response to persist after it has
been learned, you should reinforce it
intermittently, not continuously.
 Conti…
c) Punishment- is a stimulus that weakens the
response or makes it less likely to recur.
 Punishers can be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli
that weaken responses or make them unlikely to
recur.
 Like reinforcers, punishers can also be primary or
secondary.
 Pain and extreme heat or cold are inherently
punishing and are therefore known as primary
punishers.
 Criticism, demerits, catcalls, scolding, fines, and bad
grades are common secondary punishers.
 The positive-negative distinction can also be applied to
punishment.
 Something unpleasant may occur following some
behavior is positive punishment and something
pleasant may be removed is negative punishment.
 Conti…
The Pros and Cons of Punishment
 Immediacy, consistency and intensity matter are
important for effectiveness of punishment.
 Immediacy – When punishment follows
immediately after the behavior to be punished.
 Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the
behavior being punished is intermittently
reinforced and therefore becomes resistant to
extinction.
 Intensity- In general terms severe punishments
are more effective than mild ones.
 However, there are studies that indicate that even
less intense punishments are effective provided
that they are applied immediately and
consistently.
 Conti…
 However, when punishment fails:
1. People often administer punishment
inappropriately.
2. The recipient of punishment often responds with
anxiety, fear or rage. These negative emotional
reactions can create more problems than the
punishment solves.
3. The effectiveness of punishment is often
temporary, depending heavily on the presence of
the punishing person or circumstances
4. Most behavior is hard to punish immediately.
5. Punishment conveys little information. An
action intended to punish may instead be
reinforcing because it brings attention.
 Conti…
Shaping
 Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure in
which successive approximations of a desired
response are reinforced.
 In shaping you start by reinforcing a tendency in
the right direction.
 Then you gradually require responses that are
more and more similar to the final desired
response.
 The responses that you reinforce on the way to
the final one are called successive
approximations.
 Conti…
Application of the theory of operant conditioning:
1. Conditioning study behavior: Teaching is the
arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement, which
expedite learning. For effective teaching, teachers should
arrange effective contingencies of reinforcement. Example:
For Self-learning of a student teacher should reinforce student
behavior through variety of incentives such as prize, medal,
smile, praise, affectionate patting on the back or by giving
higher marks.
2. Conditioning and classroom behavior: During a learning
process, children can acquire unpleasant experiences. This
unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject
and the classroom and learners begin to dislike the subject and
the teacher.
3. Managing Problem Behavior: Operant conditioning is a
behavior therapy technique that shape students behavior. To
do this, teachers should admit positive contingencies like
praise, encouragement etc. For learning, One should not admit
negative contingencies.
 Conti…
4. Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: Through conditioning, fear,
anxieties, prejudices, attitudes, and perceptual meaning develops. Examples of
anxieties that are acquired through conditioning are signals on the road, siren
blown during wartime, child receiving painful injection from a doctor. Anxiety is
a generalized fear response. To break the habits of fear, a teacher can use
desensitization techniques. That is, a teacher can initially provide very weak form
of conditioned stimulus. Gradually the strength of stimulus should be increased.
5. Conditioning group behavior: Conditioning can make an entire group learn and
complete change in behavior with reinforcement. It breaks undesired and unsocial
behavior too. Example: Putting questions or telling lie to teachers will make
teachers annoyed. In such circumstances students learn to keep mum in the class.
Asking questions, active participation in class discussion will make the teacher feel
happy – interaction will increase and teaching learning process becomes more
effective.
6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: Reinforcement is given in different form,
for the progress of knowledge and in the feedback form. When response is correct,
positive reinforcement is given. Example: A student who stands first in the
class in the month of January is rewarded in the month of December. To
overcome this Program instruction is used. In this subject matter is broken down
into steps. Organizing in logical sequence helps in learning. Each step is built upon
the preceding step. Progress is seen in the process of learning. Immediate
reinforcement is given at each step.
7. Shaping Complex Behavior: Complex behavior exists in the form of a chain
of small behavior. Control is required for such kind of behavior. This extended
form of learning is shaping technique.
 Conti…
3.3.2. Social Learning Theory (observational learning) theory
 According to psychologist Albert Bandura, a major part of
human learning consists of observational learning, which is
learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model.
 The perspective is often referred to as a social cognitive approach
to learning because observational learning cannot be fully
understood without taking into account the thought processes
of the learner.
 Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that can
encourage observational learning.
 Direct reinforcement: the observer may reproduce the behaviors of
the model and receive direct reinforcement.
 Vicarious reinforcement: the observer may simply see others
reinforced for a particular behavior and then increase his or her
production of that behavior.
 Self-reinforcement: imitating the behavior not because it leads to
external rewards but because the observer value and enjoy
their growing competence.
 Conti…
 Bandura mentions four conditions that are
necessary before an individual can successfully
model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the
model.
2. Retention: the observer must be able to remember
the behavior that has been observed.
3. Motor reproduction: the third condition is the
ability to replicate the behavior that the model
has just demonstrated.
4. Motivation: the final necessary ingredient for
modeling to occur is motivation; learners must want
to demonstrate what they have learned.
 Conti…
Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory
 Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning; modeling can
provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care
that they do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique
is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.
6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks.
Thus it is very important to develop a sense of self-efficacy for students.
7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic
accomplishments.
8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving
student behavior.
 Conti…
3.3.3. Cognitive Learning Theory
 Cognitive learning may take two forms:
1. Latent learning
2. Insight learning (gestalt learning or perceptual
learning)
 Conti…
Latent Learning
 “Latent” means hidden
 Thus latent learning is learning that occurs but is
not evident in behavior until later, when
conditions for its appearance are favorable.
 It is said to occur without reinforcement of
particular responses and seems to involve
changes in the way information is processed.
 A great deal of human learning remains latent
until circumstances allow it to be expressed.
 Conti…
 Insight Learning
 It is a cognitive process whereby we reorganize our
perception of a problem.
 It doesn’t depend on conditioning of particular behaviors for
its occurrence.
 Sometimes, for example, people even wake up from sleep
with a solution to a problem that they had not been able to
solve during the day.
 In a typical insight situation where a problem is posed,
a period follows during which no apparent progress is
made, and then the solution comes suddenly.
 What has been learned in insight learning can also be
applied easily to other similar situations.
 Human beings who solve a problem insightfully usually
experience a good feeling called an 'aha' experience.
 CHAPTER FOUR
MEMORY AND FORGETTING
4.1. Memory
4.1.1. Meaning and Processes of Memory
• Memory is the retention of information/what
is learned earlier over time.
• It is the way in which we record the past for
later use in the present.
• To learn about the nature of memory, it is
useful to separate the process from the
structure.
Conti…
Processes of Memory
• Memory processes are the mental activities we perform
to put information into memory, to keep it there, and to
make use of it later.
• This involves three basic steps:
a) Encoding: The term was taken from computer science
& refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which an item
of information is to be placed in memory.
 It is also the process by which information is initially
recorded in a form usable to memory.
 In encoding, we transform a sensory input into a form
or a memory code that can be further processed.
Conti…
b) Storage: To be remembered, the encoded
experience must leave some record in the
nervous system (the memory trace); it must be
squirreled away and held in some more or less
enduring form for later use.
• It is the location in memory system in which
material is saved.
• Storage is the persistence of information in
memory.
c) Retrieval: is the point at which one tries to
remember to dredge up a particular memory
trace from among all the others we have stored.
• In retrieval, material in memory storage is
located, brought into awareness and used.
 Conti…
4.1.2. Stages/Structure of Memory
• Memory structure is the nature of memory
storage – including the way of representing
and organizing information in memory and
how long information lasts in memory.
• People usually understand memory as a single
faculty, but the term memory covers a
complex collection of abilities and processes.
Conti…
• Many cognitive psychologists relate the mind to
an information processor, along the lines of a
digital computer that takes items of information
in; processes them in steps or stages, and then
produces an output.
• This idea is described by Information processing
theories/models.
• Like computer, we also store vast amounts of
information in our memory storehouse.
• From this storehouse, we can retrieve some
information onto a limited capacity of working
memory, which also receives information from
our current experience.
Conti…
• Part of this working memory is displayed on
the mental “screen” we call consciousness.
• A number of such models of memory have
been proposed.
• One of the most important and influential of
these is the one developed by Richard
Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968).
• According to Atkinson and Shiffrin, memory
has three structures:
Cont…
1) Sensory Memory/Sensory Register:
• It is the entry way to memory.
• It is the first information storage area.
• Sensory memory acts as a holding bin,
retaining information until we can select items
for attention from the stream of stimuli
bombarding our senses.
Conti…
• It gives us a brief time to decide whether
information is extraneous or important.
• Sensory memory includes a number of separate
subsystems, as many as there are senses.
• It can hold virtually all the information reaching our
senses for a brief time.
• The information stored in sensory memory is a
fairly accurate representation of the environmental
information but unprocessed.
• Most information briefly held in the sensory
memory simply decays from the register.
• However, some of the information that has got
attention and recognition pass on short-term
memory for further processing.
Conti…
2) Short-term Memory:
• Is part of our memory that holds the contents
of our attention.
• Unlike sensory memories, short-term memories
are not brief replicas of the environmental
message.
• Instead, they consist of the by-products or end
results of perceptual analysis.
• STM is important in a variety of tasks such as
thinking, reading, speaking, and problem solving.
• There are various terms used to refer to this stage
of memory, including working memory, immediate
memory, active memory, and primary memory.
Conti…
• Short term memory is distinguished by four
characteristics:
1. It is active: - information remains in STM
only so long as the person is consciously
processing, examining, or manipulating it.
2. Rapid accessibility: - Information in STM is
readily available for use.
Conti…
3. Preserves the temporal sequence of
information: - STM usually helps us to
maintain the information in sequential
manner for a temporary period of time.
It keeps the information fresh until it goes to
further analysis and stored in LTM in meaningful
way.
4. Limited capacity: - George Miller (1956)
estimated the capacity of STM to be “the magic
number 7±2”.
That is, on the average, people can hold about 7
pieces of information in STM at a time; with a
normal range from 5 to 9 items.
Conti…
• We can overcome the limited capacity of STM by
chunks.
• Chunking is the grouping of information into
higher order units that can be remembered as
single units.
• Chunking expands working memory by making
large amounts of information more manageable.
• The real capacity of short-term memory,
therefore, is not a few bits of information but a
few chunks.
• A chunk may be a word, a phrase, a
sentence, or even a visual image, and it
depends on previous experience.
Conti…
• STM memory holds information received
from SM for up to about 30 seconds by
most estimates.
• It is possible to prolong STM indefinitely by
rehearsal - the conscious repetition of
information.
• Material in STM is easily displaced unless we
do something to keep it there.
Conti…
3. Long Term Memory
• It is a memory system used for the relatively
permanent storage of meaningful information.
• The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical
limits.
• The vast amount of information stored in LTM
enables us to learn, get around in the
environment, and build a sense of identity and
personal history.
• LTM stores information for indefinite periods.
• It may last for days, months, years, or even a
lifetime.
Conti…
• The LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub
systems:
1. Declarative/ explicit memory- the conscious
recollection of information such as specific facts or
events that can be verbally communicated.
It is further subdivided into semantic and episodic memories.
a. Semantic memory: - is memory of general knowledge and
facts about the world.
• factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts
and our ability to do math.
• They are internal representations of the world,
independent of any particular context.
b. Episodic memory: - memories for events and situations
from personal experience.
• They are internal representations of personally experienced
events.
• It is also called Autobiographic memory.
Conti…
2. Non-declarative/ implicit memory- refers to
a variety of phenomena of memory in which
behavior is affected by prior experience
without that experience being consciously
recollected.
• One of the most important kinds of implicit
memory is procedural memory.
• It is the “how to” knowledge of procedures
or skills: Knowing how to comb your hair,
use a pencil, or swim.
Conti…
Serial Position Effect
• The three-box model of memory is often invoked
to explain interesting phenomenon called the
serial position effect.
• If you are shown a list of items and are then
asked immediately to recall them, your retention
of any particular item will depend on its position
in the list.
• That is, recall will be best for items at the
beginning of the list (the primacy effect) and at
the end of the list (the recency effect).
• When retention of all the items is plotted, the
result will be a U-shaped curve.
Conti…
4.1.3. Factors Affecting Memory
• Eleven Factors that Influence Memory Process in Humans
are as follows:
a. Ability to retain: This depends upon good memory
traces left in the brain by past experiences.
b. Good health: A person with good health can retain the
learnt material better than a person with poor health.
c. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than
the aged.
d. Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember
complex material.
e. Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for
better retention.
f. Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better
memory than a dull person.
Conti…
g. Interest: If a person has more interest, he will
learn and retain better.
h. Over learning: Experiments have proved that
over learning will lead to better memory.
i. Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to
better retention,
j. Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful
materials remain in our memory for longer
period than for nonsense material,
k. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after
learning strengthens connections in the brain
and helps for clear memory.
Conti…
4.2 Forgetting
4.2.1 Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting
• Forgetting refers to the apparent loss of
information already encoded and stored in the
long-term memory.
• There is almost always a strong initial
decline in memory, followed by a more
gradual drop over time.
Conti…
4.2.2. Theories of Forgetting
• Psychologists have proposed five mechanisms to
account for forgetting:
4.2.2.1. The Decay Theory
• The decay theory holds that memory traces
or engram fade with time if they are not
“accessed” now and then.
• This explanation assumes that when new
material is learned a memory trace or engram- an
actual physical change in the brain- occurs.
• In decay, the trace simply fades away with
nothing left behind, because of the passage of
time.
Conti…
• Decay occurs in sensory memory and short
term memory unless we rehearse the
material.
• However, the mere passage of time does not
account so well for forgetting in long-term
memory.
Conti…
4.2.2.2. Interference
• Interference theory holds that forgetting occurs
because similar items of information interfere with
one another in either storage or retrieval.
• The information may get into memory, but it
becomes confused with other information.
• There are two kinds of interference that
influence forgetting: proactive and retroactive.
• In Proactive Interference, information learned
earlier interferes with recall of newer material.
• In Retroactive Interference, new information
interferes with the ability to remember old
information.
Conti…
4.2.2.3. New Memory for Old/ Displacement
Theory
• This theory holds that new information entering
memory can wipe out or destroy old
information, just as recording on an audio or
videotape will obliterate/wipe out the
original material.
• This theory is mostly associated with the STM,
where the capacity for information is limited.
• It cannot be associated with the LTM because of
its virtually unlimited capacity.
Conti…
4.2.2.4. Motivated Forgetting
• Sigmund Freud maintained that people forget
because they block from consciousness those
memories that are two threatening or painful
to live with, and he called this self-protective
process Repression.
• Today many psychologists prefer to use a
more general term, motivated forgetting.
Conti…
4.2.2.5. Cue Dependent Forgetting
• Often when we need to remember, we rely on
retrieval cues, items of information that can
help us find the specific information we‘re
looking for.
• When we lack retrieval cues, we may feel as if
we have lost the call number for an entry
in the mind‘s library.
• In long-term memory, this type of memory
failure may be the most common type of all.
• Cues that were present when you learned a
new fact or had an experience are apt to be
especially useful later as retrieval aids.
Conti…
4.3. Improving Memory
• Pay Attention: It seems obvious, but often we
fail to remember because we never encoded
the information in the first place.
• When you do have something to remember,
you will do better if you encode it.
• Encode information in more than one
way: The more elaborate the encoding of
information, the more memorable it will be.
Conti…
• Add meaning: The more meaningful the
material, the more likely it is to link up with
information already in LTM.
• Take your time: If possible, minimize
interference by using study breaks for rest or
recreation.
• Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce interference.
• Over learn: Studying information even after you
think you already know it- is one of the best ways
to ensure that you’ll remembers it.
• Monitor your learning: By testing yourself
frequently, rehearsing thoroughly, and reviewing
periodically, you will have a better idea of how
you are doing.
CHAPTER : MOTIVATION & EMOTIONS
5.1. Motivation
5.1.1. Definition and types of motivation
 Motivation is a factor by which activities are
started, directed and continued so that physical or
psychological needs & wants are met.
 The word itself comes from the Latin word
‘Mover’, which means ‘to move’.
 Motivation is what ‘moves’ people to do the things
they do.
 Conti…
 There are different types of motivation.
 But, it is possible to categorize them into two:
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
1. Intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in which
the individual acts because the act itself is
rewarding/satisfying some internal state.
2. Extrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in
which individuals act because the action leads to
an outcome that is external to a person.
Conti…
5.1.2. Theories of Motivation

a) Instinct approaches to motivation

 Focuses on the biologically determined and innate patterns of

both humans and animals behavior is called instincts.

 For them, just as animals are governed by their instincts to do

things such as migrating, nest building, mating and
protecting their territory, human beings may also be governed
by similar instincts.

 Thy believe that the instinct to reproduce is responsible for

sexual behavior, and the instinct for territorial protection maybe
related to aggressive behavior of human being.
Conti…
 The early theorists and psychologists listed thousands of
instincts in humans including curiosity, flight (running away),
pugnacity (aggressiveness), and acquisition (gathering
possessions).

 However, none of these theorists did more than giving names to

these instincts.

 Although there are plenty of descriptions, such as “submissive

people possess the instinct of submission”, there was no attempt
to explain why these instincts exist in humans.

 But these approaches accomplished one important thing by forcing

psychologists to realize that some human behavior is controlled
by hereditary factors.
Conti…
b) Drive-reduction approaches to motivation

 Is involved with the concepts of needs and drives.

 A need is a requirement of some material that is essential for the survival of

the organism.

 When an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological tension & physical

arousal to fulfill the need and reduce the tension. This tension is called drive.

 Drive-reduction theory proposes just the connection between internal psychological

states and outward behavior.

 There are two kinds of drives: primary and secondary.

 Primary drives: are those that involve survival needs of the body such as hunger and
thirst.

 Secondary drives: those that are learned through experience (e.g., need for money &
social approval).
Cont…
c) Arousal approaches: Beyond Drive Reduction

 Arousal approaches seek to explain behavior in which the goal is

to maintain or increase excitement.

 According to arousal approaches, each person tries to maintain a

certain level of stimulation and activity.

 As with the drive-reduction model, this approach suggests that if our

stimulation and activity levels become too high, we try to reduce
them.

 But, in contrast to the drive-reduction perspective, the arousal

approach suggests that if levels of stimulation and activity are
too low, we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation.
Conti…
d) Incentive approaches: Motivation’s Pull
 Suggest that motivation stems from the desire to
attain external rewards, known as incentives.
 Acc. to drive-reduction theory of motivation, internal
drives “push” behavior.
 Acc. to the incentive theory of motivation, external
incentives “pull” our behavior.
 Rather than contradicting each other, then, drives and
incentives may work together in motivating behavior.
Conti…
e) Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts Behind Motivation

 Suggest that motivation is a result of people’s thoughts, beliefs, expectations

and goals.

 E.g., The degree to which students are motivated to study for a test is based on
their expectation of how well studying will pay off in terms of a good grade.

 Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key difference between

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

 Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for our

enjoyment rather than for any tangible reward that it will bring us.

 In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do something for some

other actual/concrete rewards like money, a good grade, etc.
Conti…
f) Humanistic approaches to motivation
 is based on the work of Abraham Maslow.
 He is one of the early humanistic psychologists who rejected the
dominant theories of psychoanalysis and behaviorism in favor of a
more positive view of human behavior.
 Maslow suggested that human behavior is influenced by a
hierarchy of five needs or motives.
 He said that needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy must be at
least partially met before people can be motivated to satisfy
needs at higher levels.
 Maslow’s five Hierarchies of needs for motives from the bottom to
the top are as follows:
Conti…
1. Physiological needs: - are biological requirements for human survival, like air, food,
drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.

2. Safety needs: - protection from enemies, for example a need for security, order, law,
stability, freedom from fear.

3. Love and belongingness needs: - involves social need or feelings of belongingness.

4. Esteem needs: - the need to be respected as a useful & honorable individual.

 Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories:

 Esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, and independence) and

 The desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).

5. Self-actualization needs: - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal

growth and peak experiences.

 A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming”.

Conti…
5.1.3. Conflict of motives and frustration

 Based on the sources of motivation and the importance of

the decision, people usually face difficulty choosing
among the motives.

 When the decision is more important, the number

and strength of motivational pushes and pulls are
often greater, creating far more internal conflict
and indecision.

 There are four basic types of motivational conflicts.

Conti…
 Approach-approach conflicts: - exist when we must
choose only one of the two desirable activities.

 Avoidance-avoidance conflicts: - arise when we must

select one of two undesirable alternatives.

 Approach-avoidance conflicts - happen when a

particular event or activity has both attractive and
unattractive features.

 Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts - exist when

two or more alternatives each have both positive
and negative features.
Conti…
 Suppose you must choose between two jobs.
 One offers a high salary with a well-known
company but requires long working hours and
relocation to a miserable climate.
 The other boasts advancement opportunities,
fringe benefits, and a better climate, but it doesn‘t
pay as much and involves an unpredictable work
schedule.
Conti…
5.2. Emotions
5.2.1. Definition of emotion
 The Latin word meaning “to move” is the source of both
words -motive and emotion.
 Emotion is the “feeling” aspect of consciousness,
characterized by some physical arousal, behavior
that reveals the feeling to the outside world, and
an inner awareness of feelings.
 From this definition, we can understand that there are
three elements of emotion: the physiology, behavior
and subjective experience.
Conti…
A.The physiology of emotion: - is physical arousal
created by the sympathetic nervous system when a
person experiences an emotion.
 For example, increased heart rate & breathing, the
dilated/widen pupils of the eye and the dried mouth.
B. The behavior of emotion: - tells us how people behave
in the grip of an emotion.
 For example, facial expressions, body movements and
actions that indicate to others how a person feels.
Conti…
C. Subjective experience/labeling emotion: -
involves interpreting the subjective feeling
by giving it a label like anger, fear, disgust,
happiness, sadness, shame, interest, surprise
and so on.
Conti…
5.2.2. Theories of emotion
I. James - Lang Theory of Emotion
 is based on the work of William James (1884,
1890, 1894), the functionalist in the early
history of psychology and Carl Lang (1885), a
physiologist and psychologist in Denmark,.
 the two names are used together to refer to the
theory – the James - Lang theory of emotion.
Conti…
 Acc. to this theory, a stimulus of some sort produces a
physiological reaction.
 This reaction, which is the arousal of the “fight-or-
flight” sympathetic nervous system, produces bodily
sensations such as increased heart rate, dry mouth,
and rapid breathing.
 James and Lang believed that physical arousal led to
the labeling of the emotion (fear).
 Simply put, “I am in love because of my heart rate
increases when I look at her.”
Conti…
II. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

 Physiologists Walter Cannon (1927) and Philip Bard (1934) theorized

that the emotion and the physiological arousal occur more or less at
the same time.
 Cannon, an expert in sympathetic arousal mechanisms, did not feel that the
physical changes aroused by different emotions were distinct enough to
allow them to be perceived as different emotions.

 Bard expanded on this idea by stating that the sensory information that
comes into the brain is sent simultaneously to both the cortex and the
organs of the sympathetic nervous system.

 The fear and the bodily reactions are, therefore, experienced at

the same time - not one after the other.

 “I am afraid and running and aroused!”

Conti…
III. Schechter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal Theory

 Schechter - Singer (1962) proposed that, base on

cues from the environment, two things (the
physical arousal and labeling of the arousal) have
to happen before emotion occurs.

 These two things happen at the same time,

resulting in the labeling of the emotion.

 For example, “I am aroused in the presence of a

scary dog; therefore, I must be afraid.”
 CHAPTER 6: PERSONALITY
6.1. Meaning of Personality

 The term personality is derived from the word “persona”, which has Greek and
Latin roots and refers to the theatrical masks worn by Greek actors.

 Personality is defined as the unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings,

and actions that characterize a person.

 Personality should not be confused with:

 Character (ጠባይ) - refers to value judgments made about a person’s morals or
ethical behavior. (Value judgment is an assessment of something as good or bad
in terms of one’s standard or priorities.)

 Temperament (የተፈጥሮ አመል) - the enduring characteristics with which

each person is born, such as irritability.

 Both character and temperament are vital personalities.

Conti…
6.2. Theories of Personality
6.2.1. The psychoanalytic theory of personality
 Was formulated by Sigmund Freud.
 According to Freud, personality is formed arising from basic inborn
needs, drives, and characteristics.
 He argued that people are in constant conflict between their
biological urges (drives) and the need to met them.
 For Freud, personality has three parts which serves a different
function and develops at different times: id, ego, and superego.
 According to Freud, the way these three parts of personality
interact with one another determines the personality of an
individual.
Conti…
1. Id: If It Feels Good, Do It
 The first and most primitive part of the personality in the infant is the
id.

 The Id is a Latin word that means “it”.

 The id is a completely unconscious, immoral part of the

personality that exists at birth, containing all of the basic
biological drives like hunger, thirst, sex, aggression.

 When these drives are active, the person will feel an increase in both
physical and psychological tension that Freud called libido.

 Libido is the instinctual energy that may come into conflict

with the demands a society’s standards for behavior.
Conti…
 When libidinal energy is high, it is unpleasant for
the person, so the goal is to reduce libido by
fulfilling the drive; Eat when hungry, drink
when thirsty, and satisfy the sex when the need
for pleasure is present.
 The need for satisfaction is called the pleasure
principle (the desire for immediate satisfaction of
needs with no regard for the consequences).
 The pleasure principle can be summed up simply as
“if it feels good, do it.”
Conti…
2. Ego: The Executive Director
 Is also the Latin word which means “I”.
 The ego is mostly conscious and is far more rational and
logical than the id.
 It works on the reality principle (the need to satisfy the demands
of the id and reduce libido only in ways that will not lead to
negative consequences).
 Helps individual to deal with reality
 Sometimes the ego decides to deny the id’s drives because the
consequence would be painful or too aversive.
 A simpler way of stating the reality principle is “if it feels good, do
Conti…
3. Superego: The Moral Watchdog
 Freud called it the moral center of personality.
 It has a Latin roots meaning “over the self”.
 Develops as a preschool-aged child learns the rules, customs,
and expectations of society.
 There are two parts to the superego: the ego ideal and the
conscience.
 The ego-ideal: - is the sum of all the correct and acceptable behavior
that the child has learned about from parents and others in the society. Is
considered as a kind of measuring device.
 The conscience: - is part of the personality that makes people pride
when they do the right thing and guilt when they do the wrong thing.
Conti…
 Generally, for Freud, our personality is the outcome of the continual

battle for dominance among the id, ego, and superego.

 This constant conflict between them is managed by psychological

defense mechanisms.

 Defense mechanisms are unconscious tactics that either prevent

threatening material from surfacing or disguise it when it does.

 Some of the defense mechanisms includes:

1. Repression: involves banishing threatening thoughts, feelings, and

memories into the unconscious mind.

2. Denial: is refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation.

Conti…
3. Regression: involves reverting to immature behaviors that have relieved
anxiety in the past.

4. Rationalization: involves giving socially acceptable reasons for one’s

inappropriate behavior.

5. Displacement: involves expressing feelings toward a person who is less

threatening than the person who is the true target of those feelings.

6. Projection: involves attributing one’s undesirable feelings to other people.

7. Reaction formation: involves a tendency to act in a manner opposite to

one's true feelings.

8. Sublimation: involves expressing sexual or aggressive behavior through

indirect, socially acceptable outlets.
Conti…
 Our use of defense mechanisms is not
considered as inappropriate or unhealthy unless
we rely on them to an extreme level.
 Remember that, all of us use defense mechanisms
to manage our conflict and stress.
 It may not be possible to get through life without
such defenses.
 But, excessive use may create more stress than it
alleviates.
Conti…
6.2.2. The trait theory of personality

 See personality as a combination of stable internal characteristics that

people display consistently over time and across situations.

 The trait approach to personality makes three main assumptions:

1. Personality traits are relatively stable and predictable over time.

 E.g., A gentle person tends to stay the same way across time.

2. Personality traits are relatively stable across situations, and they can
explain why people act in predictable ways in many different situations.
 E.g., A person who is competitive at work will probably also be competitive on
sport.

3. People differ in how much of a particular personality trait they possess;

no two people are exactly alike on all traits.
Conti…
 One of trait theory of personality is Big 5 theory of personality.

 According to the Big Five theory, there are five trait dimensions remembered
by using the acronym OCEAN.

A. Openness: - a person’s willingness to try new things and be open to new

experiences.

B. Conscientiousness: - deals with a person’s organization and motivation.

 People who score high in conscientiousness are careful about being in

places, on time and careful with belongings (possession of property).

 Someone scoring low on this dimension, for example, might always be

late to important social events, borrow belongings and fail to return them
or return in poor coordination.
Conti…
C. Extraversion: - acc. to Carl Jung, all people could be divided into two
personality types: extraverts and introverts.

 Extraverts are outgoing and sociable, whereas introverts are

more solitary and dislike being the center of attention.

D. Agreeableness: - refers to the basic emotional style of a person, who

may be easygoing, friendly and pleasant (at the high end of the
scale) or grumpy/irritable, crabby/bad-tempered and hard to get
along with (at the low end).

E. Neuroticism: - refers to emotional instability or stability.

 People who are excessively worried, over anxious and moody would
score high on this dimension, whereas those who are more even-
tempered and calm could score low.
Conti…
6.2.3. Humanistic theory of personality

 Emphasize on people’s inherent goodness and their

tendency to move toward higher levels of functioning.

 They believes that “the conscious, self-motivated ability to

change and improve, along with people’s unique creative
impulses make up the core of personality.”

 Humanists (Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow) wanted

psychology to focus on the things that make people
uniquely human, such as subjective emotions and the
freedom to choose one’s destiny.
Conti…
Carl Rogers and Self-Concept
 Like Maslow, Rogers believed that human beings are always
striving to fulfill their innate capacities and capabilities and to
become everything that their genetic potential will allow
them to become.
 This striving for fulfillment is called self-actualizing tendency.
 An important tool in human self-actualization is the development of
an image of oneself called self-concept.
 The self-concept is based on what people are told by others and
how the sense of self is reflected in the words and actions of
important people in one’s life.
Conti…
 The two important components of the self-concept are:
 The real self: - one’s actual perception of characteristics, traits, and
abilities that form the basis of the striving for self-actualization and

 The ideal self: - the perception of what one should be or would like to be.

 The ideal self primarily comes from those important, significant others in
one’s life, most often the parents.

 Rogers believed that:

 when the real self and the ideal self are very close or similar to each other,
people feel competent and capable.

 when there is a mismatch between the real and ideal selves, people develop
anxiety and neurotic behavior.
Conti…
 When one has a realistic view of the real self, and the
ideal self is attainable, there usually isn’t a problem of a
mismatch.
 It is when a person‘s view of self is distorted or the
ideal self is impossible to attain that problems arise.
 Once again, it is primarily how the important people
(who can be either good or bad influences) in a person’s
life react to the person that determines the degree of
agreement between real and ideal selves.
Conti…
Conditional and Unconditional Positive Regard

 Rogers defined positive regard as warmth, affection,

love, and respect that comes from the significant others
(parents, admired adults, friends, and teachers) in
people’s experience.

 Positive is vital to people’s ability to cope with stress

and to strive to achieve self-actualization.

 Rogers believed that unconditioned positive regard is

necessary for people to be able to explore fully all
that they can achieve and become.
Conti…
 Although self-actualization and “to be fully functioning” are highly related
concepts, there are some subtle differences.

 Self-actualization is a goal that people are always striving to reach, according to

Maslow (1987).

 In Rogers's view, only a person who is fully functioning is capable of

reaching the goal of self-actualization.

 To be fully functioning is a necessary step in the process of self-actualization.

 Maslow (1987) listed several people that he considered to be self-actualized

people: Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, and Eleanor Roosevelt, for
example.

 These were people that Maslow found to have the self-actualized qualities of being
creative, autonomous and unprejudiced, for example.
 Chapter 7: Psychological Disorders and Treatment
Techniques
7.1. Nature of Psychological Disorders

 A psychological disorder is a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors.

 We generally have three main criteria: abnormality, maladaptiveness, and personal

distress.

1. Abnormality

 Abnormal behavior is a behavior that deviates from the behavior of the “typical”
person; the norm.

 When someone behaves in culturally unacceptable ways and the behaviors he/she
exhibit violates the norm, standards, rules and regulations of the society, this
person is most likely to have a psychological problem.
Conti…
 Only abnormal behavior cannot be
sufficient for the diagnosis of psychological
problem.
 Hence, we need to consider the context in
which a person’s behavior happens.
 The context in which ‘abnormal’ behavior
occurs must be considered before deciding
that it is symptomatic of psychological
disorders.
Conti…
2. Maladaptiveness
 Maladaptive behavior in one way or another
creates a social, personal and occupational
problem on those who exhibit the behaviors.
 These behaviors seriously disrupt the day-to-day
activities of individuals that can increase the
problem more.
3. Personal Distress
 Our subjective feelings of anxiety, stress, tension
and other unpleasant emotions determine whether
we have a psychological disorder.
 Hence, behavior that is abnormal, maladaptive,
or personally distressing might indicate that a
person has a psychological disorder.
Conti…
7.2. Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on
Perspectives)
7.2.1 The Biological Perspective
 Believes that abnormalities in the working of
chemicals in the brain, called neurotransmitters,
may contribute to many psychological disorders.
 E.g., over activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine,
perhaps caused by an overabundance of certain
dopamine receptors in the brain, has been linked to
the bizarre symptoms of schizophrenia.
7.2.2 Psychological Perspectives
 In this part, we will examine three psychological
perspectives: the psychoanalytic perspective, the
learning, and the cognitive behavioral perspectives.
Conti…
A. Psychoanalytic perspective
 Sigmund Freud believed that the human mind consists
of three interacting forces:
 the id (a pool of biological urges),
 the ego (which mediates between the id and reality),
and
 the superego (which represent society‘s moral
standards).
 Abnormal behavior, in Freud’s view, is caused by the
ego’s inability to manage the conflict between the
opposing demands of the id and the superego.
 Especially important is the individuals’ failure to
manage the conflicting of id’s sexual impulses during
childhood, and society’s sexual morality to resolve the
earlier childhood emotional conflicts that determine
how to behave and think later.
Conti…
B. Learning perspective
 Most mental and emotional disorders, arise from
inadequate or inappropriate learning.
 Acc. to this perspective, abnormal behaviors are
acquired through various kinds of learning.
C. Cognitive perspective
 The main theme of this perspective is that self-
defeating thoughts lead to the development of
negative emotions and self-destructive behaviors.
 People’s ways of thinking about events in their life
determines their emotional and behavioral patterns.
 Hence, if there is a disturbance in on our thinking, it
may manifest in our display of emotions and behaviors.
 Our environmental and cultural experiences in our
life play a major role in the formation of our thinking
style.
Conti…
7.3. Types of Psychological Disorders
 Psychopathology is the study of
psychological disorders, including their
symptoms, etiology/causes, and treatment.
 The term psychopathology can also refer to
the manifestation/expression of a
psychological disorder.
 There are many types of psychological
disorders, but in this section we will try to
see three of them; mood disorder, anxiety
disorder and personality disorder.
Conti…
1) Mood Disorders
 Mood disorders are characterized by a serious
change in mood from depressed to elevated
feelings causing disruption to life activities.
 Depressive disorder is characterized by overall
feelings of desperation and inactivity.
 Elevated moods are characterized by mania or
hypomania.
 The cycling between both depressed and manic
moods is characteristic of bipolar mood
disorders.
 In addition to type and subtype of mood,
these disorders also vary in intensity and
severity.
Conti…
 If you have a mood disorder, your general
emotional state or mood is distorted or
inconsistent with your circumstances and
interferes with your ability to function.
 You may be extremely sad, empty or irritable
(depressed), or you may have periods of
depression alternating with being excessively
happy (mania).
 The disorders in this category include those where
the primary symptom is a disturbance in mood.
 The disorders include Major Depression,
Dysthymic Disorder, Bipolar Disorder, and
Cyclothymia.
Conti…
1) Major Depression (also known as
depression or clinical depression) is
characterized by depressed mood, diminished
interest in activities previously enjoyed,
weight disturbance, sleep disturbance, loss
of energy, difficulty concentrating, and
often includes feelings of hopelessness and
thoughts of suicide.
2) Dysthymia is often considered a lesser, but
more persistent form of depression.
 Many of the symptoms are similar except to a
lesser degree.
Conti…
3) Bipolar Disorder (previously known as
Manic-Depression) is characterized by periods
of extreme highs (called mania) and extreme
lows as in Major Depression.
 Bipolar Disorder is subtyped either I (extreme
or hypermanic episodes) or II (moderate or
hypomanic episodes).
4) Cyclothymia: Like Dysthymia and Major
Depression, Cyclothymia is considered a lesser
form of Bipolar Disorder.
Conti…
2) Anxiety Disorders
 Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress and can be
beneficial in some situations.
 It can alert us to dangers and help us prepare and
pay attention.
 Anxiety disorders differ from normal feelings
of nervousness or anxiousness, and involve
excessive fear or anxiety of something.
 Anxiety disorders are the most common of mental
disorders and affect nearly 30 percent of adults at
some point in their lives.
 Job performance, schoolwork, and personal
relationships can be affected.
Conti…
 In general, for a person to be diagnosed with
an anxiety disorder, the fear or anxiety must:
Be out of proportion to the situation or age
inappropriate and
Hinder one’s ability to function normally.
 Anxiety Disorders categorize a large
number of disorders where the primary
feature is abnormal or inappropriate
anxiety.
 It includes Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia,
Specific Phobias, Social Phobia, Obsessive-
Compulsive Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder, and Generalized Anxiety Disorder.
Conti…
a) Panic Disorder is characterized by a series of panic
attacks.
 A panic attack is an inappropriate intense feeling
of fear including many of the following symptoms:
heart palpitations, trembling, shortness of breath,
chest pain, dizziness.
b) Agoraphobia literally means fear of the marketplace.
 It refers to a series of symptoms where the person
fears, and often avoids, situations where escape or
help might not be available, such as shopping
centers, grocery stores, or other public place.
 Agoraphobia is often a part of panic disorder if the
panic attacks are severe enough to result in an
avoidance of these types of places.
Conti…
c) Specific or Simple Phobia and Social Phobia
represent an intense fear and often an avoidance of
a specific situation, person, place, or thing.
 To be diagnosed with a phobia, the person must have
suffered significant negative consequences because of
this fear and it must be disruptive to their everyday life.
d) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is
characterized by obsessions (thoughts which seem
uncontrollable) and compulsions (behaviors which
act to reduce the obsession).
 These obsessions and compulsions are disruptive to the
person's everyday life, with sometimes hours being
spent each day repeating things, which were completed
successfully already such as checking, counting,
cleaning, or bathing.
Conti…
e) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
occurs only after a person is exposed to a
traumatic event where their life or someone
else's life is threatened.
 E.g., war, natural disasters, major accidents,
and severe child abuse.
 Once exposed to an incident like listed above,
the disorder develops into an intense fear
of related situations, avoidance of these
situations, reoccurring nightmares, flashbacks,
and heightened anxiety to the point that it
significantly disrupts their everyday life.
Conti…
f) Generalized Anxiety Disorder is diagnosed
when a person has extreme anxiety in nearly
every part of their life.
 It is not associated with just open places (as in
agoraphobia), specific situations (as in
specific phobia), or a traumatic event (as
in PTSD).
 The anxiety must be significant enough to
disrupt the person's everyday life for a
diagnosis to be made.
Conti…
3) Personality Disorders
 A personality disorder is a type of mental
disorder in which one has a rigid and
unhealthy pattern of thinking, functioning and
behaving.
 A person with a personality disorder has
trouble perceiving and relating to situations
and people.
 Thus, Personality Disorders are characterized by
an enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and
behaving which is significantly different from the
person's culture and results in negative
consequences.
 This pattern must be longstanding and
inflexible for a diagnosis to be made.
Conti…
 There are around nine types of personality
disorders, all of which result in significant distress
and/or negative consequences within the
individual:
1) Paranoid personality disorder: characterized by
a pattern of distrust and suspiciousness.
2) Schizoid: involves a pattern of detachment from
social norms and a restriction of emotions.
3) Schizotypal: characterized by pattern of
discomfort in close relationships and an
eccentric/odd/unconventional thoughts and
behaviors.
4) Antisocial: involves a pattern of disregard for the
rights of others, including violation of these rights
and the failure to feel empathy.
Conti…
5) Borderline: pattern of instability in personal
relationships, including frequent bouts of
clinginess and affection and anger and
resentment, often cycling between these two
extremes rapidly.
6) Histrionic: pattern of excessive emotional
behavior and attention seeking.
7) Narcissistic: pattern of grandiosity, exaggerated
self-worth, and need for admiration.
8) Avoidant: pattern of feelings of social
inadequacies, low self-esteem, and
hypersensitivity to criticism.
9) Obsessive-Compulsive: pattern of obsessive
cleanliness, perfection, and control.
Conti…
7.4. Treatment Techniques
 Treatment of mental illnesses can take various forms.
 They can include medication, talk therapy, a
combination of both, and can last only one session or
take many years to complete.
 Many different types of treatment are available, but
most agree that the core components of psychotherapy
remain the same.
 Psychotherapy consists of the following:
1. A positive, healthy relationship between a client or
patient and a trained psychotherapist.
2. Recognizable mental health issues, whether
diagnosable or not.
3. Agreement on the basic goals of treatment.
4. Working together as a team to achieve these goals.
Conti…
7.4.1. Treatment Approaches
 Providing psychological treatment to
individuals with some kind of psychological
problems is psychotherapy.
 When providing psychotherapy, there are
several issues to be considered.
 First and foremost is empathy.
 Second, being nonjudgmental is vital if
the relationship and treatment are going to
work.
Conti…
 Aside from these issues, therapists
approach clients from slightly different
angles, although the ultimate goal remains the
same:
to help the client reduce negative symptoms,
to gain insight into why these symptoms occurred
and work through those issues, and
to reduce the emergence of the symptoms in the
future.
 The three main branches include Cognitive,
Behavioral, and Dynamic.
Conti…
A) Cognitive approach to treatment
 Therapists who lean toward the cognitive branch
will look at dysfunctions and difficulties as
arising from irrational or faulty thinking.
 In other words, we perceive the world in a certain
way (which may or may not be accurate) and this
result in acting and feeling a certain way.
B) Behavioral approach
 Those who follow more behavioral models look
at problems as arising from our behaviors
which we have learned to perform over
years of reinforcement.
Conti…
C) Dynamic approach
 The dynamic or psychodynamic camp stem
more from the teaching of Sigmund Freud and
look more at issues beginning in early
childhood which then motivate us as adults at
an unconscious level.
Conti…
 Cognitive approaches appear to work
better with most types of depression, and
behavioral treatments tend to work better with
phobias.
 Most mental health professionals nowadays
are more eclectic in that they study how to
treat people using different approaches.
 These professionals are sometimes referred to
as integrationists.
Conti…
7.4.2. Treatment Modalities
 Generally, there are two types of treatment
modalities: individual and group therapies.
 Therapy is most often thought of as a one-on-one
relationship between a client/patient and a
therapist.
 Often time‘s group therapy is utilized,
where individuals suffering from similar
illnesses or having similar issues meet together
with one or two therapists.
 Group sizes of group therapy differ, ranging from
three or four to upwards of 15 or 20, but the goals
remain the same.
Conti…
 The power of group is due to the need in
all of us to belong, feel understood, and
know that there is hope.
 It can be overwhelming in a very positive way
and continues to be the second most utilized
treatment after individual therapy.
Conti…
 Therapy can also take place in smaller groups
consisting of a couple or a family.
 In this type of treatment, the issues to be
worked on are centered on the relationship.
 The therapist's job here is facilitating healthy
interaction, encouraging the couple or family
to gain insight into their own behaviors, and
teaching the members to listen to and respect
each other.
Conti…
 The treatment approach and modality are
always considered, along with many other
factors, in order to provide the best
possible treatment for any particular person.
 Sometimes more than one is used, sometimes a
combination of many of them, but together the
goal remains to improve the life of the client.
 Chapter 8: Introduction To Life Skills
 The purpose for which this topic and the
course in general are introduced to freshman
students is to help them develop the life skills.

 So, the purpose of the chapter and the way it is

presented needs to help students to explore
themselves and acquire a better way of
managing their life.
Conti…
8.1. Nature and Definition of Life skills
 Life skills are something of a buzzword and have been the focus of
discussion across a range of personal and social affairs around the
world.
 Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that
enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and
challenges of everyday life (WHO).
 It is also defined as “behavioral changes or behavioral development
approach designed to address a balance of three areas: knowledge
attitude and skills” (UNICEF’s definition).
Conti…
• Life skills are essentially those abilities that help
to promote mental well-being and competence in
young people as they face the realities of life.

• Hence, students who are able to understand and

use these skills, along with their educational
qualifications, will be better placed to take
advantage of educational and employment
opportunities.
Conti…
8.2. Components of Life Skills
 Life skills include the components like critical thinking, self-
awareness, self-confidence, self-esteem, decision making,
interpersonal relationship, reflective communication, peer
resistance, knowing rights and duties, problem solving, so on.
 If someone is able to develop them at least to an average level, s/he
can lead a better and peaceful life.
 Moreover, to be effective in life, one has to develop skills of
expressing views, challenging stereotypes, making connections,
thinking creatively, getting good advices, managing time, learning
how to learn, listening actively, and the like.
Conti…
 The following are simple descriptions given for major components
of life skills.
 The details are given in the subsequent chapters of the module.
 However, for better understanding, you need to read different
materials written on life skills.
a. Critical thinking - thinking more effectively within curricular
subject areas, understanding the reasoning employed, assessing
independently and appropriately, and solving problems effectively.
 It also involves improved thinking skills in dealing with real life
problems in assessing information and arguments in social contexts
and making life decisions.
Conti…
b. Self-confidence – is the degree to which one can rely on his/her
ability to perform certain
behavior alone or in public.
 It is individual’s trust in his or her own abilities, capacities, and
judgments, or belief that he or she can successfully face day-to-day
challenges and demands (Psychology Dictionary Online).
c. Self-awareness – knowledge and understanding of one‘s strengthens
and weaknesses.
 Self awareness involves monitoring our inner worlds, thoughts,
emotions, and beliefs.
 It is important, because it is a major mechanism influencing
personal development.
Conti…
d. Self-esteem - the degree to which we perceive ourselves positively or
negatively; our overall attitude toward ourselves, which can be
measured explicitly or implicitly.
e. Decision-making - Processes involved in combining and integrating
available information to choose, implement and evaluate one out of
several possible courses of actions.
f. Interpersonal relationships – the relationships a person have with
others persons.
 They are social associations, connections, or affiliations between
two or more people having various levels of intimacy and sharing,
and implying the discovery or establishment of common ground.
Conti…
g. Reflective communication - attending communications with thoughtful and
due attention to reflect on one’s own thinking, behaviors and interaction
with others.

h. Peer pressure resistance – individual’s abilities and skills to confront

negative influences from his/her group members.

i. Knowing rights and duties – One’s knowledge and understanding of rights

and duties of individuals, groups, institutions and nations allowed to do or
not to do by law and/or a culture.

j. Problem solving – the process of identifying a discrepancy between an

actual and desired state of affairs, difficulties, obstacles and complex issues
and then taking action to resolve the deficiency or take advantage of the
opportunity.
Conti…
8.2. Goals of Life Skills
 The goal of knowing and applying life skills is to lead a
smooth and successful life at home, work place and in
social relationship.
 These skills help us live in harmony with ourselves and
others around us, select the goods from the bad, choose
gold from soil, simplify life that is full of troubles
therwise etc.
 Therefore, everyone is advised to know, understand and
exercise skills of life.
Conti…
 Life skills are not something we learn only for the sake of academic
life. We rather develop them for effective functioning in our life.

 Development of life skills is, therefore, a lifelong process where one

has to update his/her skills and knowledge of dealing with life
events.

 Life skills are generally applied in the context of academics,

workplace and social events.

 For instance, they can be utilized in many content areas of health:

prevention of drug use, sexual violence, teenage pregnancy,
HIV/AIDS prevention and suicide prevention.
Conti…
 Its importance can also extend into consumer education, environmental
education, peace education or education for development, livelihood and
income generation, among others.
 In short, life skills empower young people to take positive action to protect
themselves and promote health and positive social relationships.
 With life skills, one is able to explore alternatives, weigh pros and cons and
make rational decisions in solving each problem or issue as it arises.
 It also entails being able to establish productive interpersonal relationships
with others.
 Life skills enable effective communication, for example, being able to
differentiate between hearing, listening, and ensuring that messages are
transmitted accurately to avoid miscommunication and misinterpretations.
Conti…
Summary

 Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively
with the demands and challenges of everyday life.

 Life skills include critical thinking, self-confidence, self-awareness, self-esteem, decision making,
interpersonal relationship, reflective communication, negative peer pressure resistance, knowing
rights and duties, and problem solving.

 The goal of knowing and applying life skills is to lead smooth and successful life at home, work
place and in social interpersonal relationship.

 Developing life skills can produce the following effects: lessened violent behavior; increased pro-
social behavior and decreased negative, self-destructive behavior; increased the ability to plan ahead
and choose effective solutions to problems; improved self-image, self-awareness, social and
emotional adjustment; increased acquisition of knowledge; improved classroom behavior; gains in
self- control and handling of interpersonal problems and coping with anxiety; and improved
constructive conflict resolution with peers, impulse control and popularity.
Chapter 9: Intra-personal And Interpersonal Skills
9.1. Self-Concept and Self-Awareness
A. Self-concept
 As discussed by Gecas (1982) in a document entitled Annual Review of
Sociology, the self is a reflexive phenomenon that develops in social
interaction and is based on the social
character of human language.
 The concept of self provides the philosophical underpinning for
social-psychological inquiries into the self-concept.
 The "self-concept," on the other hand, is a product of this reflexive
activity.
 It is the concept the individual has of himself/herself as a physical, social,
and spiritual or moral being.
Conti…
 Self-concept has the following important features:
 It is the totality of ideas that a person holds about the self.

 It includes everything the person believes to be true about

himself/herself.

 It is composed of relatively permanent self-assessments that of course

changes over time with life experiences and relationships.

 It is not restricted to the present. It also includes past and future selves.

 It is a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual’s

perception of "self" in relation to a number of characteristics, such as
academics, gender roles, racial identity, and many others.

 It guides our actions, motivations, expectations and goals for future

Conti…
B. Self- awareness
 Self-awareness is having a clear perception of your
personality, including strengths, weaknesses, thoughts,
beliefs, motivation, and emotions.
 It is an attribute of one’s self-concept that allows
understanding other people’s attitudes and responses to
them.
 High self-awareness is a solid predictor of good success in
life, perhaps because a self-aware person knows when an
opportunity is a good fit for them and how to make an
appropriate enterprise work well.
 However, most of us are hardly aware of why we succeed or fail; or
why we behave as we do.
 Our minds are so busy with daily hassles that we usually self-reflect
only when something goes awfully wrong.
 Our response in challenging situations is often to get defensive,
make excuses, or blame another person, because we do not want to
see our part in the disaster.
 If we can observe ourselves during such incidents, it will be a good
start to self-awareness.
Conti…
 Here are some suggestions to start building self-
awareness:
 Practice mindfulness
 Become a good listener
 Become more self-aware
 Open your mind to new perspectives
 Develop self-esteem
 Look at yourself objectively
 Take feedback from others
 Know your strengths and weaknesses
 Set intentions and goals
Conti…
9.2. Self-esteem and self-confidence

A. Self-esteem

 "Esteem" is derived from the Latin aestimare, meaning "to appraise,

value, rate, weigh, estimate," and self-esteem is our cognitive and, above
all, emotional appraisal of our own worth.

 More than that, it is the matrix through which we think, feel, and act,
reflects and determines our relation to ourselves, to others, and to the
world.

 Self-esteem deals with the evaluative and emotional dimensions of the

self-concept.

 Self-evaluation or self-esteem refers to the evaluative and affective

aspects of the self-concept.
Conti…
 Self-esteem refers to an individual’s overall
self-evaluation.

 It is the judgment or opinion we hold about

ourselves.

 It’s the extent to which we perceive ourselves

to be worthwhile and capable human beings.
Conti…
 Increasingly, however, various aspects of self-
esteem have been differentiated.
 However, common to these subdivisions is the
distinction between (a) self-esteem based on a
sense of competence, power, or efficacy and (b)
self-esteem based on a sense of virtue or moral
worth.
 The importance of this distinction lies in the
suggestion that these two bases of self-esteem
may be a function of different processes of self-
concept formation and that they constitute
different sources of motivation.
Conti…
 Briefly, competency-based self-esteem is tied closely to
effective performance.
 As a result, it is associated with self-attribution and
social comparison processes.
 Self-esteem based on virtue (termed self-worth) is
grounded in norms and values concerning personal and
interpersonal conduct e.g. justice, reciprocity, and
honor.
 The process of reflected appraisal contributes to the
formation of self-worth.
Conti…
B. Self-confidence
 The term confidence comes from the Latin fidere, "to
trust."
 To be self-confident is to trust in oneself, and, in
particular, in one‘s ability or aptitude to engage
successfully or at least adequately with the world.
 A self-confident person is ready to rise to new
challenges, seize opportunities, deal with difficult
situations, and take responsibility if and when things go
wrong.
Conti…
 Just as self-confidence leads to successful experience,
successful experience leads to self-confidence.
 Although any successful experience contributes to our
overall confidence, it is, of course, possible to be highly
confident in one area, such as cooking or dancing, but very
insecure in another, such as mathematics or public speaking.
 Self-confidence is the belief in oneself and abilities, which
describes an internal state made up of what we think and
feel about ourselves.
Conti…
 Sometimes, people use self-confidence and courage interchangeably.
 However, they have differences.
 In the absence of confidence, courage takes over.
 Confidence operates in the realm of the known, whereas courage in
that of the unknown, the uncertain, and the fearsome.
 I cannot be confident in diving from a height of 10 meters unless
someone once had the courage to dive from a height of 10 meters.
 Courage is a nobler attribute than confidence because it requires
greater strength, and because a courageous person is one with
limitless capabilities and possibilities.
Conti…
9.3. Self-Control
 Self-control is achieved by refraining from actions we like and instead performing actions we prefer
not to do as a means of achieving a long-term goal.
 People often want to change themselves by, for example, quitting smoking, going on a diet, studying
more effectively, and so on but they may find it difficult to stick with such long range goals.
 Instead, people often succumb to the lure of an immediate reward and break with their prior
commitment.
 In other words, we fail to control ourselves in some meaningful way.
 Some researchers have suggested that the act of controlling ourselves is taxing and makes
exercising subsequent self-control more difficult.
 It is said that we have a limited ability to regulate ourselves, and if we use our control resources on
unimportant tasks, there will be less available capacity for the important ones.
Conti…
9.4. Anger Management
 Anger is a state of emotion where a person is irritated
by block of interests, loss of possession or threats to
personality.
 Everyone gets angry at times.
 When people are angry or annoyed, they may walk
away or use a harsh tone of voice.
 Other times, they may yell, argue, or start a fight.
 If you learn to manage, or control your anger, you can
redirect these surges of anger energy to reach your goal.
Conti…
 When anger is not controlled, conflict becomes
worse.

 Dwelling on how angry you are doesn’t help to

defuse your anger.

 Instead your anger can build and lead to rage.

 At this stage, you may no longer be able to

think clearly.
Conti…
 The ancient martial art teaches those who practice the
art to remain calm, to empty themselves of anger, and
to gain the advantage in a conflict by using their
opponent’s tendency to strike out in blind rage.
 This type of self-control is not just for martial artists.
 You can develop these techniques to control your anger
and prevent conflicts from getting out of hand.
Conti…
 Techniques for managing anger:
 Recognize anger as a signal of vulnerability - you feel devalued in
some way.
 When angry, think or do something that will make you feel more
valuable, i.e., worthy of
appreciation.
 Do not trust your judgment when angry. Anger magnifies and
amplifies only the negative aspects of an issue, distorting realistic
appraisal.
 Try to see the complexity of the issue. Anger requires narrow and
rigid focus that ignores or oversimplifies context.
Conti…
 Strive to understand other people's perspectives. When angry you assume the worst or
outright demonize the object of your anger.

 Do not justify your anger. Instead, consider whether it will help you act in your long-term
best interest.

 Know your physical and mental resources. Anger is more likely to occur when tired,
hungry, sick, confused, anxious, preoccupied, distracted, or overwhelmed.

 Focus on improving and repairing rather than blaming. It's hard to stay angry without
blaming and it's harder to blame when focused on repairing and improving.

 When angry, remember your deepest values. Anger is about devaluing others, which is
probably inconsistent with your deepest values.

 Know that your temporary state of anger has prepared you to fight when you really need to
learn more, solve a problem, or, if it involves a loved one, be more compassionate.
Conti…
9.5. Emotional Intelligence and Managing Emotion
 Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify and
manage one’s own emotions, as well as the emotions of
others.
 Emotional intelligence includes at least three skills:
 emotional awareness, or the ability to identify and name one’s
own emotions;
 the ability to harness those emotions and apply them to tasks like
thinking and problem solving; and
 the ability to manage emotions, which includes both regulating
one’s own emotions when necessary and helping others to do the
same.
Conti…
 Emotional intelligence describes the ability,
capacity, skill, or self- perceived ability to
identify, assess, and manage the emotions of
one’s self, of others, and of groups.
 People who possess a high degree of emotional
intelligence know themselves very well and are
also able to sense the emotions of others.
 They are affable, resilient, and optimistic.
 By developing their emotional intelligence, individuals can become more productive and
successful at what they do, and help others become more productive and successful too.

 The process and outcomes of emotional intelligence and its development also contain many
elements known to reduce stress.

 Promoting understanding and relationships, fostering stability, continuity, and harmony helps to
develop emotional intelligence family, organization and society.

 Last but not least, it links strongly with concepts of love and spirituality.

 Individuals have different personalities, wants, needs, and ways of showing their emotions.

 In the most generic framework, five domains of emotional intelligence are divided into personal
(self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-motivation) and social (social awareness and social
skills) competences.
Conti…
9.6. Stress, Coping with Stress and Resilience

 Stress generally refers to two things: the

psychological perception of pressure, on the
one hand, and the body's response to it, on the
other, which involves multiple systems from
metabolism to muscles and memory.
Conti…
 Some stress is necessary for all living systems as it is
the means by which you encounter and respond to the
challenges and uncertainties of existence.
 However, prolonged or repeated arousal of the stress
response, a characteristic of modern life, can have
harmful physical and psychological consequences,
including heart disease, diabetes, anxiety, and
depression.
 Mainly, stress comes from three categories of stressors:
catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles.
Conti…
 Catastrophes - Catastrophes are unpredictable, large scale events,
such as war and natural disasters, that nearly everyone appraises as
threatening.

 Significant Life Changes - the death of a loved one, loss of a job,

leaving home, marriage, divorce, etc. Life transitions and
insecurities are often keenly felt during young adulthood.

 Daily life events - our happiness stems less from enduring good
fortune than from our responses to daily events such as awaiting to
hear medical results, perfect exam scores, gratifying phone call,
your team‘s winning the big game and the like. This principle works
for negative events, too.
• Everyday annoyances like rush hour traffic,
aggravating housemates,
long lines at the store, too many things to do, e-
mail spam, and obnoxious cell phone talkers
may be the most significant sources of stress.
Although some people can simply shrug off
such hassles, others are easily affected by them.
People‘s difficulties in letting go of
unattainable goals is another everyday stressor
with health consequences.
• Coping With Stress
Stressors are unavoidable. As they are coupled with
heart disease, depression, and lowered
immunity, we need to learn to cope with the stress in
our lives. There are two ways of dealing
with stress: problem focused and emotion-focused.
Problem focused - when we feel a sense of control over
a situation and think we can change
the circumstances or change ourselves, we may
address stressors directly, with problem -
focused coping. For example, if our impatience leads to
fight our friend, we may go directly
to that friend to work things out.
• Emotion-focused - When we cannot handle the problem or believe
that we cannot change a situation, we may turn to emotion-focused
coping. If, despite our best efforts, we cannot get along with that
friend, we may reach out to other friends to help address our own
emotional needs.
• Emotion-focused strategies can be non-adaptive, as when students
worried about not keeping up with the reading in class go out and
party to clear their mind.
• A problem-focused strategy (catching up with the reading) would be
more effectively reduce stress and promote long - term health and
satisfaction.
• When challenged, some people tend to respond more with cool
problem-focused coping, others with emotion-focused coping.
Several factors affect the ability to cope successfully, including
feelings of personal control, outlook, and supportive
connections.
• Resilience
Adversity is a fact of life and resilience is succeeding in the face of the adversity.
Resilience
is about getting through pain and disappointment without letting them crush your
spirit. In
other language, resilience is the quality to come back at least as strong as before
after being
knocked down by adversity. In the process of resilience, individuals focus on
finding a way
to rise from the failure rather than letting difficulties or failure overcome them.
Resilience is the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy,
threats or
significant sources of stress such as family and relationship problems, serious
health problems or
workplace and financial stressors. It means "bouncing back" from difficult
experiences (APA
definition).
• A positive attitude, optimism, the ability to regulate
emotions, and the ability to see failure as
a form of helpful feedback are resilience strategies.
Research shows that optimism helps to
blunt the impact of stress on the mind and body in the
wake of disturbing experiences. It
gives people access to their cognitive resources,
enabling cool-headed analysis of what might
have gone wrong and consideration of behavioral paths
that might be more productive.
• Resilience is not some magical quality but it takes real mental work
to transcend hardship.
Even after misfortune, resilient people are able to change course
and move toward achieving
their goals. Being resilient does not mean that a person does not
experience difficulty or
distress. Emotional pain and sadness are common in people who
have suffered major
adversity or trauma in their lives. In fact, the road to resilience is
likely to involve
considerable emotional distress. Resilience is not a trait that people
either have or do not
have. It involves behaviors, thoughts and actions that can be
learned and developed in
anyone.
• 9.7. Critical and Creative Thinking
Critical thinking skills includes decision-making/problem solving skills and
information
gathering skills. The individual must also be skilled at evaluating the future
consequences of
their present actions and the actions of others. They need to be able to determine
alternative
solutions and to analyze the influence of their own values and the values of those
around
them.
• Critical thinking is "Purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in
interpretation,
analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential,
conceptual,
methodological, contextual considerations upon which judgment is based (ADEA).
• Critical thinking is also regarded as intellectually
engaged, skillful, and responsible
thinking that facilitates good judgment because it
requires the application of assumptions,
knowledge, competence, and the ability to challenge
one's own thinking. Critical thinking
requires the use of self-correction and monitoring to
judge the rationality of thinking as well
as reflexivity. When using critical thinking, individuals
step back and reflect on the quality
of that thinking (ADEA).
• A central goal of contemporary education is to improve the thinking skills
of students, and
the notions of critical thinking and of creative thinking provide focusses
for this effort.
Educators strive for students to be better critical thinkers. This implies
thinking more
effectively within curricular subject areas, understanding the reasoning
employed, assessing
independently and appropriately, and solving problems effectively. It
involves, as well,
improved thinking skills in dealing with real life problems, in assessing
information and
arguments in social contexts and making life decisions. We also want
students to be more
creative, not simply to reproduce old patterns but to respond productively
to new situations,
to generate new and better solutions to problems, and to produce original
works.
• The ability to connect the seemingly unconnected and
meld existing knowledge into new
insight about some element of how the world works.
These goals of fostering critical thinking and of
fostering creativity are generally considered
to be quite separate and distinct. Critical thinking is
seen as analytic. It is the means for
arriving at judgments within a given framework or
context. Creative thinking, on the other
hand, is seen as imaginative, constructive, and
generative. Learn the comparisons given in the
below.
• 9.8. Problem Solving and Decision Making
Problem solving