Digital Logic &

Design

Lecturer :
Engr Hasnain Ahmad
week No: 4
Different Logic Codes & their Arithmetic
(BCD – Excess-3 – Gray – ASCII Codes)
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic - Introduction
 Besides the basic representations used for unsigned and signed
integers and fractions, many other binary codes also exist for
representing numbers, as well as letters, and all manner of other
things (colors, machine instructions, etc.) Other types of codes
are used to protect data from damage or eavesdropping
 In this lecture we will cover a few of the most commonly
encountered codes: e.g.
 BCD Code, Excess-3 Code, Gray code, ASCII Code
 Introduction of some general concepts of error control codes and
Parity bits (Odd or Even) will also mentioned.

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic - Introduction
 In computer engineering, digital telecommunications engineering,
and computer science, certain special numbers of bits that have
names commonly associated with them:
۞ 3 bits – An octal digit.
۞ 4 bits (1 hex digit) – A nibble (or nybble?).
۞ 8 bits (2 hex digits) – A byte (B), character, or octet.
۞ 16 bits (4 hex digits) – A half-word or a short int.
۞ 32 bits (8 hex digits) – A word or an int.
۞ 64 bits (16 hex digits) – A double-word or long int.
۞ 128 bits (32 hex digits) – A quad-word or long long int.
۞ 8,192 bits (2,048 hex digits) – A kilobyte (kB) or kibibyte (kiB).
 And so forth,
۞with 1,024 KB = 1 MB, and 1,024 MB = 1 GB, etc. 3
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic - BCD Code
 BCD Code is a way of representing decimal numbers directly
in binary.
۞The digits 0-9 are represented with their 4-bit equivalents
0000-1001 (same as hex digits 0-9).
۞However, codes 1010-1111 remain unused.
► The values of the digit positions are taken as powers of
10, rather than 16.
 Example: 35810 = 0011 0101 1000 in BCD.

 Example: Encode the decimal Number N = (2573)10 in BCD

N = 0010 0101 0111 0011 in BCD.

► BCD is more human-readable than hexadecimal or binary,

► But arithmetic hardware for plain binary is simpler 4
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic - BCD Code

Table of
Signed Decimal Numbers
& their
BCD Equivalents

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic - BCD Code
 Addition Process of BCD Code
Many computers and calculators use the BCD Code to represent decimal
numbers. As mentioned earlier that this code takes each decimal digit and
represent it by a four-bit code ranging from 0000 to 1001.

 Rule for BCD Addition

1. Sum of two numbers equals 9 or less

۞Then write down the BCD equivalents of the given decimal digits and
simply add them up to get the final result.

2. Sum of two numbers is greater than 9

۞Whenever sum of two digits exceeds 9, the sum must be corrected by
the addition of six (0110) in that particular sum when the number
exceeds 9 to take into account the skipping of the six invalid code
groups. 6
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic - BCD Code

 Rule for BCD Subtraction

Subtract the two BCD numbers using the rules for binary
subtraction.

1. If subtraction difference is equal to 9 or less

۞If subtraction result is equal or less than 9 then it is a valid BCD number
, leave it as result

2. If subtraction difference is greater than 9

۞If subtraction result is greater than 9 or if a borrow is required from the
next group , subtract 6 (0110) from the result produced by four bit
subtraction.
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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic - BCD Code
Examples for Rule 1: Add 45 + 33 using BCD Addition.

Example 1
45 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
+ 33 +0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
78 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

Example 2
674 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
+ 325 +0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
999 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic - BCD Code
Examples for Rule 2: Add 47 + 35 using BCD Addition.
Example 1
47 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ 35 + 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
82 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 Invalid Sum in 1st digit
+0 1 1 0 Add 6 to correct
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Correct BCD Sum
Example 2
756 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
+ 245 + 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1001 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 Invalid Sum in 1st digit
0 0 0 1+ 0 1 1 0 +0 1 1 0 +0 1 1 0 Add 6 in each bit to correct
0001 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Correct BCD Sum 9
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic - BCD Code
Examples for Rule 2: Sub 86 - 24 using BCD Subtraction.
Example 1
86 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
- 24 - 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
82 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
Example 2
920 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
- 265 - 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
655 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 Invalid Sum in 1st digit
- 0 1 1 0 - 0 1 1 0 Add 6 in each bit to correct
01 1 0 01 0 1 0 1 0 1 Correct BCD Sum

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Excess-3 Code
 Excess-3 Code is a type of a code in which a digit is represented
by adding 3 to the number and then converting it to a 4-bit
binary number. It can be used for the representation of multi-
digit decimal numbers as can BCD. This code have some
advantages for performing decimal arithmetic.

 Excess-3 binary-coded decimal (XS-3), also called biased

representation or Excess-N, is a numeral system used on some
older computers that uses a pre-specified number N as a biasing
value. It is a way to represent values with a balanced number of
positive and negative numbers. In XS-3, numbers are represented
as decimal digits, and each digit is represented by four bits as the
BCD value plus 3 (the "excess" amount):
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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Excess-3 Code
 In Excess-3 Code The smallest binary number represents
the smallest value. (i.e. 0 − Excess Value) and The
greatest binary number represents the largest value. (i.e.
2 N+1 − Excess Value − 1)
Table for Excess-3 Code

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Excess-3 Code
 The primary advantage of XS-3 coding over BCD coding is
that a decimal number can be nines' complemented (for
subtraction) as easily as a binary number can be ones'
complemented; just invert all bits.

 Adding Excess-3 works on a different algorithm than BCD

coding or regular binary numbers. When you add two
XS-3 numbers together, the result is not an XS-3 number.
For instance, when you add 1 and 0 in XS-3 the answer
seems to be 4 instead of 1. In order to correct this problem,
when you are finished adding each digit, you have to
subtract 3 (binary 11) if the digit is less than decimal 10
and add three if the number is greater than or equal to
decimal 10 (thus causing the number to wrap).
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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Excess-3 Code
 Addition is Excess-3 (XS-3)
 Normally the problem arises when we are trying to add 8421
numbers whose decimal sum exceeds 9. The XS-3 code was
designed to get rid of this. There are two cases in XS-3 Addition

 Rule for Excess-3 Addition

Case 1. Sum of two numbers equals 9 or less
۞Then the results is an Excess-6 number. To return to XS-3
form we must subtract 3 (0011) to get the required result.
Case 2. Sum of two numbers is greater than 9
۞Whenever sum of two digits exceeds 9, there will be a carry
from one group into the next. When this happened, the group
that produced the carry will revert to 8421 form. To restore
the answer to XS-3 code we must add 3 to the group that
produced the carry.
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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Excess-3 Code
 Subtraction is Excess-3 (XS-3)
 Normally the problem arises when we are trying to add 8421
numbers whose decimal sum exceeds 9. The XS-3 code was
designed to get rid of this. There are two cases in XS-3 Addition

 Rule for Excess-3 Subtraction

Case 1. when there is borrow
۞When there is a borrow when we subtract two numbers then
subtract 3 (0011) .
Case 2. Sum of two numbers is greater than 9
۞When there is no borrow when we subtract two numbers
then add 3 (0011)

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Excess-3 Code
Example for Case 1: Add 43 + 36 using Excess-3 addition.
Example 1
43 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
+ 36 +0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
79 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 XS-6 for 79
- 0 0 1 1 - 0 0 1 1 Subtract 3 to correct
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 XS-3 for 79
Example for Case 1: Add 674 + 325 using Excess-3 addition.
Example 2
674 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
+ 325 +0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
999 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 XS-6 for 999
- 0 0 1 1 - 0 0 1 1 - 0 0 1 1 Subtract 3 to correct
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 XS-3 for 999 16
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Excess-3 Code
Example for Case 1: Add 29 + 39 using Excess-3 addition.
Example 1
29 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
+ 39 +0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
68 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 XS-6 for 68
- 0 0 1 1 + 0 0 1 1 Add & Subtract 3 to correct
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 XS-3 for 68
Example for Case 2: Add 576 + 325 using Excess-3 addition.
Example 2
576 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
+ 325 +0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
901 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 XS-6 for 901
-0 0 1 1 +0 0 1 1+0 0 1 1 Add & Subtract 3 to correct
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1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 XS-3 for 901
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Excess-3 Code
Example for Case 2: Sub 86 - 24 using Excess-3 subtraction.
Example 1
86 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
- 24 -0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
62 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 XS-6 for 68
+ 0 0 1 1 + 0 0 1 1 Add & Subtract 3 to correct
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 XS-3 for 68
Example for Case 1: sub 920 - 265 using Excess-3 subtraction.
Example 2
920 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
- 265 -0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
655 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 XS-6 for 901
+0 0 1 1 -0 0 1 1 -0 0 1 1 Add & Subtract 3 to correct
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1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 XS-3 for 901
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Gray Code
 Gray Code is a form of binary that uses a different method
of incrementing from one number to the next. With Gray
Code, only one bit changes state from one position to
another. This feature allows a system designer to perform
some error checking (i.e. if more than one bit changes, the
data must be incorrect).

 Gray Code is a unweighted code not suited to arithmetic

operations but useful for input / output devices, Analog to
Digital converters and other peripheral equipments. The
important characteristic of the Gray code is that only one
digit changes as you count from top to bottom.
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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Gray Code
 Why use Gray Code
Gray Code is the most popular absolute encoder output type because
its use prevents certain data errors which can occur with Natural
binary during state changes. For example, in a highly capacitive
circuit (or sluggish system response), a natural binary state change
from 0011 to 0100 could cause the counter/PLC to see 0111. This
sort of error is not possible with Gray Code, so the data is more
reliable.

Table:1 Shows the difference between Natural Binary and Gray C2o0de:
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Gray Code
In the Table 2 below, note that even from position 7 to 8,
Gray Code only changes one bit state.

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Gray Code
 Conversion of the Gray Code to Natural Binary

 On paper, the process is easy:

 1) Write the Gray Code and copy the left most bit under itself.

 2) Add the copied bit to the next Gray Code bit over (to the
right). Remember, 0+0=0, 0+1=1, 1+0=1, 1+1=0. Drop all
carries. Write result next to the copied digit from step 1.

 3) Repeat step 2 until completed. See Table 3 on the next slide.

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Gray Code

 Process of Binary code to Gray code conversion

Example 1: Convert Binary 110011011 to its Gray equivalent

1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
Example 2: Convert Binary 011001010 to its Gray equivalent

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 23
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Gray Code
 Process of Gray code to Binary code conversion
Example 1: Convert Gray 101001010 to its Binary equivalent
Gray Code Binary Code
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
Example 2: Convert Gray 111011110 to its Binary equivalent

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 24
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – ASCII Code
 ASCII Code: The most widely used alphanumeric code which
has almost universal use is the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII). This was originally a 7-bit
code, designed to be capable of representing the alphabet in
lower- and upper-case, all the numbers, the standard punctuation
symbols and also additional control characters. It is a seven bit
code and so it has 27=128 possible code this is more than
enough to represent all of the standard key board characters as
well as the control functions such as the return and line feed
functions.
 The first 32 values in the code are used as control characters.
An exception to this is code 127 (7F in hex). This is used to
represent the DEL (Delete) key. The Space character is an
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actual character. However it is labeled as space for clarity.
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – ASCII Code

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – ASCII Code

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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – ASCII Code
Example of writing a sentence in ASCII Code
Logic Design & Switching Theory
L o g i c sp
1001100 1101111 1100111 1101001 1100011 0100000
D e s i g n
1000100 1100101 1110011 1101001 1100111 1101110
sp & sp S w i
0100000 0100110 0100000 1010011 1110111 1101001
t c h i n g
1110100 1100011 1101000 1101001 1101110 1100111
T h e o r y
1010100 1101000 1100101 1101111 1110010 1111001 28
Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Parity Bits
 Error Detection and Correction Codes:
 The distance between two code words I and J is equal to the
number of bit positions in which I and J differ. If the distance
between any code words of a code C is ≥ dmin, the code is
said to have minimum distance dmin.

A code provides t error correction plus detection of s

additional errors if and only if
2t + s + 1 ≤ dmin.
• For single error detection codes (s=1, t=0), dmin ≥ 2.
• For single error detection codes (s=0, t=1), dmin ≥ 3.
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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Parity Bits
 Simple Parity Codes
 Even Parity: Total number of 1’s in a code word is even.
 Odd Parity: Total number of 1’s in a code word is odd.

Binary Even parity Odd parity

000 0000 0001
001 0011 0010
010 0101 0100
011 0110 0111
100 1001 1000
101 1010 1011
110 1100 1101
111 1111 1110
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Logic Codes & their Arithmetic – Parity Bits
 Example of ASCII code with Odd & Even Parity Bits
 Even Parity: Total number of 1’s in a code word is even.
 Write Pakistan in ASCII code with Even Parity.
P a k i
01010000 11100001 11101011 01101001
s t a n
11110011 01110100 11100001 11101110

 Odd Parity: Total number of 1’s in a code word is odd.

 Write Pakistan in ASCII code with Odd Parity.
P a k i
11010000 01100001 01101011 11101001
s t a n
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01110011 11110100 01100001 01101110
 BINARY STORAGE AND REGISTERS

• The binary information in a digital computer must have a physical existence in some
medium for storing individual bits.
• A binary cell is a device that possesses two stable states and is capable of storing one
bit (0 or 1) of information.
• The information stored in a cell is 1 when the cell is in one stable state and 0 when the
cell is in the other stable state.

A register is a group of binary cells.

A register with n cells can store any discrete quantity of information that contains n
bits.
The state of a register is an n-tuple of 1’s and 0’s
example,
a 16-bit register with the following binary content:

1100001111001001
A register with 16 cells can be in one of 2^16 possible states.
Register Transfer

• In digital systems, a register transfer operation is a basic

operation that consists of a transfer of binary information from
one set of registers into another set of registers.
• The transfer may be direct, from one register to another, or may
pass through data-processing circuits to perform an operation.
• Figure illustrates the transfer of information among registers and
demonstrates pictorially the transfer of binary information