Solar Electric Energy Basics:
System Design Considerations
Frank R. Leslie
B. S. E. E., M. S. Space Technology, LS IEEE
Adjunct Professor, Florida Tech, COE, DMES
10/1/2008, Rev. 1.3
fleslie @[Link]; (321) 674-7377
[Link]/~fleslie
Does Energy Affect our Lives?
Happy New Yorkers out for a Stroll!
Are they
having
fun?
Why did
this
happen?
FOXnews 8/15/2003
080820
Energy Considerations for 2050
• Fossil-fuel energy will
deplete in the future;
millions of years to create
that much cheap fuel
• US oil production peaked
about 1974; world energy
will peak about 2009 or so
• The US imports about 10
million barrels crude oil/day
• Renewable energy will
become mandatory, and our
lifestyles may change
• Transition to renewable
energy must occur well
before a crisis occurs
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US RE Resources Differ Widely
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Why use Solar Energy?
• Far from utility power lines; costly to extend lines
• Provide backup power during utility outages
– Minor glitch backup might be only for two minutes
– Hurricane line damage may need two weeks to repair
• Cleaner energy with no CO2 emissions
• Self-satisfaction of using some “free” energy (but it
costs money to get it)
• “Greener than thou” syndrome bragging rights
• “I just want it!”
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Solar Estimate from FSEC in Cocoa FL
• The “Sunshine State” has as much sunshine as Wyoming
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PV System Engineering Decomposition into
Functional Components
Collect & Distribute
Energy
Start
Collect Energy Regulate Energy Store Energy
Control Energy Distribute Energy Use Energy
Each function drives a part of the design, while the interfaces between them will
be defined and agreed upon to ensure follow-on upgrades
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A Representative Grid-Intertie Solar Electric System
• The energy flow is protected and metered
• Grid interties vary with the regional restrictions
• Multiple meters show energy generated and the
utility energy supplied and received
[Link] 081001
Solar Energy Intensity
• Energy from our sun (~1372 W/m2) is filtered through
the atmosphere and is received at the surface at ~1000
watts per square meter or less; average is 345 W/m^2
• Air, clouds, rain, and haze reduce the received surface
energy
• Capture is from heat (thermal energy) and by
photovoltaic cells yielding direct electrical energy
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Energy Usage & Conservation
• The loads supported by
the system must be
minimized to match the
available energy
• Load analysis shows the
largest concerns that
might be reduced to cut
costs
• Conservation by
enhanced building
insulation and reduced
lighting loads
• Increased efficiency of Arizona has clearer skies than Florida.
Ref.: Innovative Power Systems
energy plants will
conserve fossil fuels
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Florida Energy Use Varies with
the Time of Day (Daily Living)
• Daily load peaking (1 a.m. to midnight graph)
megawatts vs. hours
http:
3 - 7 p.m. 7 a.m. 7 - 9 p.m.
[Link]
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PV Cell Basics
• Semiconductor of
transparent positive silicon
and negative silicon backing Maximum output occurs when
• Incoming light (photons) normal to cell is pointed at
cause energized electrons to light (cosine of sun offset
move to the top n-silicon angle)
and out the connector
• Nominal voltage of 0.55 V
requires series connections
to get useful voltage, 17 V
• Short circuit current is
proportional to light intensity Ref.: FSEC
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PV Response Characteristics [Link]
MPP
• As light intensity increases, the change in current is much greater than the
change in open-circuit voltage; a dim sun still produces voltage
• The maximum power point (MPP) indicates the load resistance
to achieve maximum power for use
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Variations in Surface Energy Affect
Potential Capture
• A flat-plate collector aimed normal to the sun (directly at
it) will receive energy diminishing according to the
amount of atmosphere along the path (overhead air
mass Ξ 1); (you can look at the sun at dawn or dusk)
• The received energy varies around the World due to
local weather; in Central Florida, direct normal radiation
is 4.0 to 4.5 kWh/(m2 - day); 4.7 equivalent sun hours
• Throughout the Contiguous United States, daily solar SUN
energy varies from <3.0 to 7.0 kWh/(m2 - day)
My house uses about
23 - 40 kilowatt-hours/day Latitude Angle
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PV Systems
• PV modules of 120 W cost
about $400
• Mounting angles to match
sun --- fixed or tracking
• Average module slope
angle is equal to latitude
• Zoning and regulations ---
Not In My Back Yard
(NIMBYs) problem
• Protection required for
This solar intensity plot for Cocoa FL shows
electric line workers due the cloud effect on what otherwise would
to “islanding” backfeed have been a cosine effect Ref.: FSEC
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Solar Path for Florida Tech 2/21/anyyear
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[Link]
Solar Energy: Photovoltaic Sunlight to Electricity
• Photovoltaic cells typically
can extract about 15-17%
of incoming solar energy; World Price for Photovoltaic Modules
theoretical is about 31%; 1973-98
$/W is the key 90.0
(~$3.50/W, 2007) 80.0
1997 Dollars Per Watt
• Low voltage direct current 70.0
60.0
is produced at about 0.55 50.0
volt per cell; clusters are 40.0
series-connected for ~17 30.0
volts output for charging a 20.0
12 volt system 10.0
0.0
• Arrays of cells (modules) 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
can be fixed or can track Compiled by Worldwatch Institute
the sun for greater energy
gain PV prices are falling, though still
• Storage is required unless relatively expensive compared to
the energy is inverted to wind or fossil utility power
120 Vac to synchronously
drive the utility grid
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Collector-Module Sizing
• Most manufacturers’ modules now average about 120
watts for ease of handling at installation
• Larger 285 W modules are 4 ft by 6 ft, 107 pounds,
and require two people to use great care in handling
and positioning (our field trailer carries one of these)
• Hardware must secure module to resist winds of
~130 mph based upon zoning codes
• Module output should be ~10% larger than
calculated to allow for aging and darkening of the
cover glass
• After the first 10% decline, there is little change in
peak output
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Roof-top Solar Array Computations
• Find the south-facing roof
area; say 20 ft * 40 ft = 800 ft2
• Assume 120 Wp solar Siemens Solar
modules are 26 inches by 52 SM110
inches; 9.4 ft2/120 watt; 12.78 Maximum power
W/ft2 rating, 110 W
• Assume 90% of area can be Minimum power
covered, 720 ft2, ~9202 W rating, 100 W
• and that there are 5.5 Rated current. 6.3 A
effective hours of sun/day; 51
kWh/day Rated voltage, 17.9 V
• The south-facing modules are Short circuit current,
tilted south to the latitude 6.9 A
angle Open circuit voltage,
• 76 modules would fit the area, 21.7 V
but 44 would provide an
average home with 30
kWh/day and cost ~$17600 for
modules alone, ~one mile of
powerline
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Battery Charge Controller
Soltek Mark IV 20 Amp
• Limits charge current to protect Regulator
battery from overheating and
damage that shortens life
• Disconnects battery loads if
voltage falls too low (10.6 V is
typical)
• Removes charge current if
voltage rises too high (14V is
typical)
• Regulates charge voltage to
avoid battery water gassing
• Diverts output of source to a
secondary load (water heater or
electric furnace) if battery is
fully charged
– Saves energy wisely
“Big as a breadbox” for a 4 kW
inverter
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Power Line Outage Protection
• Storage for utility power outages requires batteries
• Two or three days with no sun is possible; design for
it by adding more storage or array surface
• Segregate important or critical loads
– At least one light per room
• Use a cable going to each room for a light and put on
one 15A circuit breaker
• Connect that breaker to a transfer switch to
substitute inverter power when needed
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Storage Batteries
• Lead-acid (car) batteries are
most economical; but must
be deep-cycle type
• Critical rating is 20-hour
value or Reserve Capacity
(RC) in minutes at 25A load Soltek
• Charge cycle is ~70% Deep-
efficient -- rather wasteful Cycle
Battery
• Requires maintenance to AP-27
ensure long life 12 Vdc,
• A home might have ten of 115 A-hr
these batteries 20-hour
rate
• Need to know the length of
time without full sun in days
• Inverter must match series
battery voltage
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Energy Storage
• Battery banks are current practice
The battery on the
• Hydrogen gas from charging must left is the size
be vented outside of a car battery;
the one on the
• Batteries should be kept warm right has much
(above 60°F) for full capacity more capacity
• Charge controller needed for large
systems to prevent overcharging
• Deep discharge reduces expected
life; ~5000 cycles
• Float voltage maintains full charge
without gassing
• Low voltage disconnect switches
are recommended 081001
Inverter
• The inverter converts low
voltage (12V to 100s V)
direct current to 120 Vac
• Synchronous inverters may
be “inter-tied” with power
line to reduce billable energy
• In “net metering” states, the
energy is metered at the
same rate going into and out
of the electrical grid --- no
storage required (except for
outages)!
• Loads can use 12 volt low- Trace
voltage directly at higher Legend
efficiency with special lamps 4 kilowatt
Inverter
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Loads
• Household load analysis
estimates the peak and
27 watt
average power and energy (100 W
required equivalent)
Compact
• Some might be reduced or Fluorescent
Lamp (CFL)
time-shifted to decrease
system costs
CFL Costs without replacement labor: $21.30
• Incandescent lamps produce Incandescent Costs with replacement labor: $39.98
far more heat than light; ____________________________________
CFLs provide ~100 W light
equivalent at 27 W load CFL Costs with replacement labor: $23.30
Incandescent Costs with replacement labor: $56.54
Hint: You can buy a CFL at a large local
discount store for $4.68
or six for $7.00!
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Load Analysis Spreadsheet
• A spreadsheet program like Excel will speed analysis
of the various loads, their use time, peak power, and
energy required
• Once done, modifications for other systems are easy
• List the loads, enter the power, time per day, and
compute the rest
• From total energy required and total power, one can
compute the size of solar modules and batteries
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Energy Load Assessment
• Site: Classroom
Load Power, W No. Daily Use, hr Energy,
kWh/day
Fluorescent 40 2*16 = 32 8 10.24
Lamp
PC & Monitor 200 1 24 4.80
Projector 600 1 4 2.4
Laptop 60 1 2 0.12
Computer
Vacuum 1560 1 0.023 0.037
Cleaner
Peak Power 1560 17.597
kWh/day
Simultaneous 2460 535.6 kWh/mo
Power 6427 kWh/year
Area = 25ft* Energy Density
30ft = 750 ft2 = 23
Wh/day/ft2
8766 hr/avg 730.5 hr/avg 30.4375 avg.
mo mo day / avg mo
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Load Analysis for a Yacht
Energy Transmission
• Solar power is expensive, so design wires for 1% loss instead of
usual 3 to 5% for utility power
• Use higher voltage (120Vac for long lines) instead of 12 Vdc
• Spend more on larger wire than normal to reduce resistance
loss
• Battery and inverter wires might be AWG #0 or 2 or larger
• Inverter output is 120Vac, so AWG#12 and 14 are common for
20A and 15A home service
• Danger with batteries is not shock but flash burns and flying
molten metal
– Special dc-rated fuses and circuit breakers are required
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Some Important Electrical Information
• P = E•I = E2/R = I2•R,
where P is power (instantaneous), E is electromotive force, I
is intensity or current, and R is resistance
• Energy = P•t, where t is the time that power flows
• V = I•R for a load or E = I•R for a source,
where V is voltage drop across resistor
• Wire size numbers roughly double the area and halve the
resistance for every three size number changes
– #18 AWG is used in ordinary lamp cord (zip cord)
– #18 AWG has a resistance of 6.385 ohms per 1000 ft
– #12 AWG has a resistance of 1.588 ohms per 1000 ft
– #9 AWG has a resistance of 0.7921 ohms per 1000 ft
– #6 AWG has a resistance of 0.3951 ohms per 1000 ft
– #3 AWG has a resistance of 0.197 ohms per 1000 ft
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Cost Analysis Spreadsheet
PV System Homework
Renewable Energy Class
PV Design for Cabin
Prof. Frank R. Leslie
10/1/2008
Loads Type Power (W) Time (h) Energy (Wh) Comments
1 CFL 13 3 39.0 Daily use
1 CFL 13 0.5 6.5
1 CFL 19 2 38.0
1 Radio 15 3 45.0
Total 60 max watts 128.5 Wh Total
Margin 50%
Margined Load 90 W max 192.75 Wh/day Energy
Nominal wire amps 9.5 A (Step 1)
Sun-hours per day 5.0 sun-hours December average
For approximately 192.75 Wh, the Dec. 5.0 sun hours requires PV to yield
38.55 watts PV
Cabin Use 2 days per week
Adjusted average energy 55.1 Wh
38.55 W module suggests you use a 40.0 W
Battery 12 V Discharge Allowed 20%
Indicated Wh 192.75 Wh
Indicated Ah 16.1 Ah
Battery size 80.3 Ah 963.75 Wh
(Discharging only some 20% extends the life of the battery.)
Inverter Size 25% Margin 1.26 NEC code
112.50 W including margin 11.8 A
Cost Estimates $5 per watt PV $1 per watt a.c. out
$1 per Ah
PV $192.75 Step 2a
Battery $80.31 Step 2b
Inverter $112.50 $385.56 subtotal Step 2c
Balance of system $77.11 20% add-on for BOS
Total System Cost $462.68
Line Cost 1.00 mile to cabin
$ 5,000 /mile $ 5,000 estimated cost for utility line to cabin
Break-even length 0.093 miles 489 feet
Better to use solar? Yes, the utility line is too costly!
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Generic Trades in Energy
• Energy trade-offs are
required to make rational
decisions
• PV is expensive ($5 per watt Ref.: [Link]/
pictures/general/
for hardware + $5 per watt windfarm/[Link]?i=2
for shipping and installation
= $10 per watt)
compared to wind energy Ref.:
($1.5 per watt for [Link]
education/story/story-
hardware + $5 per watt images/[Link]
for installation = $6 per
watt total)
• Are Compact Fluorescent Photo of
FPL’s
Lamps (CFLs) better to use? Cape
Canaveral
Plant by
F. Leslie,
2001
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Conclusion
• Solar electric energy is best
applied where the cost justifies;
remote from the grid or for
independent backup power
• True costs of fossil-fuel pollution
and subsidies are not easily
found -- controversies exist
• PV costs are falling, but fossil-
fuel costs will soon surpass them
• At that time, PV will compete
with wind energy, which is
currently competitive with fossil
fuels
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Thank you!
Questions? ? ?
My website: [Link]/~fleslie
for presentations
Roberts Hall weather and energy data:
[Link]/wx_fit/roberts/[Link]
DMES Meteorology Webpage:
[Link]/wx_fit/?q=obs/realtime/roberts
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Is a Solar Roof Practical?
Sun intensity at surface ~1000 watt / square meter
PV cells about 15% efficient = ~150 watt / square meter
Roof might be about 20 x 40 feet = 800 square feet; 90% coverage = 720
square feet
A 120 watt solar module is about 26 inches x 52 inches = ~ 9.4 sq. ft, thus
peak power production is ~12.78 watt / square ft
720 square feet*(12.8 watt/square feet) = 9202 watts peak power
Optimally, roof array could yield 9202 watts for 5.5 hours/average day = 51
kWh each day on average; average house might need 30 kWh
Storage would provide energy at night and during cloudy weather, but
increases the cost
Current cost estimates are about $5/W & $0.06 to $0.20 per kWh vs. $0.07
from utility
Utility line extension costs about $18,000 to $50,000 per mile
References: Books, etc.
• Brower, Michael. Cool Energy. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1992. 0-262-02349-0,
TJ807.9.U6B76, 333.79’4’0973.
• Duffie, John and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. NY: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 920 pp., 1991
• Home Power magazine. Ashland OR. [Link]
References: Internet
• [Link] on geothermal energy
• [Link]
• [Link] Site devoted to the decline of energy and effects upon population
• [Link] Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
• [Link]
• [Link] PV Array
• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link] Cost analysis
• [Link] Energy analysis
• [Link] Renewable energy
• [Link]
