ANALOG MODULATION

1
Definitions

Communication – the transmission of

intelligence between 2 or more points.
This refers to the sending, receiving &
processing of intelligence by electronic
means.
Intelligence – refers to data, information or
message that is to be transmitted.

2
Communication System Block
Diagram

transmitter
channel Receiver

Transmitter – device that processes the input signal to

produced a transmitted signal suited to the
characteristics of the transmission channel.
Channel – electrical medium that bridges the distance from
source to destination.
Receiver – operates on the output signal from the channel
in preparation for delivery to the transducer at the
destination.
3
Define the ff:
1. Analog modulation
2. Amplitude modulation
3. Frequency modulation
4. Phase modulation
5. Modulation index

4
WHAT IS ANALOG
MODULATION?
 Modulation – process of varying one of the properties of
the wave in proportion to another wave. This is
performed at the transmitter to achieve efficient and
reliable information transmission.
 Analog modulation consists of two parts
Analog message- a signal that causes a variation of
some of the properties of the carrier.
Carrier- unmodulated signal that suits a particular
application.
 Analog message is then impressed upon the amplitude,
frequency or phase of the carrier
 We then say carrier is “modulated” by the message
5
Why need for modulation?

Antenna size
example: at f=100MHz,λ/4=0.75m
at f=15KHz,λ/4=5Km
Signal separation

6
Types of Modulation

Amplitude Modulation (AM) – when you vary the

amplitude of the carrier in proportion to the
information signal.
Frequency Modulation (FM) – when you vary
the frequency of the carrier in proportion to the
information signal.
Phase Modulation (PM) – when you vary the
phase of the carrier in proportion to the
information signal.

7
 +
MODULATING CARRIER
SIGNAL VCsinωct
Vmsinωmt

8
AM Example

3
AM
BASEBAND

carrier 1

message -1

-2

-3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

9
AM expression

e AM = Vc sin ωct
+ Vm/2 cos(ωc-ωm)t
– Vm/2 cos(ωc+ωm)t Volts

10
11
Modulation index, m – or
coefficient of modulation,
the ratio of the magnitudes of
the modulated signal & the
unmodulated carrier
m = Vm/Vc
12
Modulation Index

The quantity m is called modulation index

or modulation factor.
Modulation index must be less or equal to
1

13
Finding Modulation Index
Vc 1 m sin 2f mt sin 2f ct 
Vmax( peak )  Vc  Vm 3
AM

Vmin( peak)  Vc  Vm
BASEBAND

0
Vmin Vmax
-1

-2

-3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Vmax  Vmin
m  modulation index =
Vmax  Vmin
14
What is m Here?
3
AM
BASEBAND

-1

-2

-3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

15
AM – Percentage Modulation

Under modulated (<100%) 100% modulated Over Modulated (>100%)

Envelope Detector Envelope Detector

Can be used Gives Distorted signal

16
Overmodulation as seen in the Reciever

17
A waveform is seen on an oscilloscope
screen. The max span is 1V,while the min
span is 0.1V. What is the modulation index?

Given: Vmax=1V & Vmin=0.1V

Required:m
Solution:
V  Vmin
m  modulation index = max
Vmax  Vmin

1  0.1
m=  0.81818
1  0.1

%m  0.81818 *100%  81.818%

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AM Envelope

Envelope is a baseband
signal and contains all the
information an AM signal
carries.

19
Requirements on the
Envelope

To prevent “overmodulation”, the

envelope must always be positive,

m  100
m  100
overmodulation

20
Trapezoidal Patterns
3
AM
BASEBAND

-1

-2

-3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

21
Showing AM Spectrum

Baseband
fm

fm
AM AM bandwidth=2fm
upper sideband
lower sideband

fc fc-fm fc fc+fm

22
 Find the modulation index if a 10-volt carrier is amplitude
modulated by three different frequencies, with amplitudes of
1, 2, and 3 volts respectively.

23
Sideband

24
a) 1MHZ carrier with an amplitude of 1V peak is modulated by a
1KHz signal with m = 0.5. Sketch the voltage spectrum.
b) An additional 2KHz signal modulates the carrier with m = 0.2.
Sketch the voltage spectrum.

25
 Bandwidth

 Citizens’ band radio channels are 10 kHz wide.What is the maximum

modulation frequency that can be used if a signal is to remain entirely
within its assigned channel?

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AM Power

The power of AM signal is split between

carrier and message

Vc 1  m sin2f mt sin2f ct 
Vc sin2f ct  mVc sin2f mt sin2f ct 

 
 Vc sin 2f ct 
mVc
 
cos f c  f m t 
mVc
cos f c  f m t
2 2
carrier
message

27
Components of AM Power
Vc2
Carrier power= 2R
Upper sideband power= 1 2 2
m Vc
8R
Lower sideband= 1 m V 2
c
2

8R

Total sideband power=  m 2Vc 2 

 
 4R 

28
Total AM Power

Total AM power is the sum of carrier and

message power

 m 2  Vc2
PT  Pcarrier  Psideband  1  
 2  2R
 m2 
PT  Pc1  
 2 

29
Distribution of AM Power

How much of the total power goes into

carrier and how much into message?
0, m  0
Psideband m2 
  1
Ptotal 2 m  ,m 1
2

3

Even under full modulation, only a third of

the transmitted power goes into the
message component

30
Example of Power Allocation

FCC power rating is based on average

carrier power. If a transmitted is rated at
5KW and is connected to a 50 ohm load,
find the total power and how it is split
between carrier and message

31
Answers...

Carrier peak amplitude is given by

1 2
Pc   Vc  50  5000  Vc  707 volts
2 
Peak sideband(message) power is
1 2 2 1
Ps  m Vc   1707   2500W
2

4 4

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AM Power Efficiency

Here is AM power distribution

Carrier power=5000W
Sideband power=2500W
Total power=7500
Efficiency=(sideband power)/total power=
(2500)/(7500)=1/3.
Out of 3 watts of transmitted power, only 1
watt is going into the message
33
Examples:

What is the total power when the carrier is

700W and modulation index is 0.5
A transmitter radiates modulated signal power
measured at 1500W, while the unmodulated
value is 1000W.what is the modulation index?
What is the unmodulated value if the modulation
index is 0.85
A 1250W carrier is modulated with a resulting
modulation index of 0.65. what is the sideband
power?

34
AM Current
 m 2  Vc2
PT  Pcarrier  Psideband  1  
 2  2R
 m2 
PT  Pc1  
 2 
PT m2
 1
Pc 2
It 2 R m2
2
 1
Ic R 2
IT 2 m2
2
 1
Ic 2

35
Examples:

When a broadcast AM transmitter is 50%

modulated, the antenna current is 12A. What
will the current be when the modulation depth is
increased to 0.8?
The antenna current of an AM broadcast
transmitter, modulated to a depth of 40% by an
audio signal is 15A. It increases to 20A as a
result of modulation with another audio signal.
What is the modulation index resulting from the
second signal?

36
AMPLITUDE MODULATION WITH
MULTIPLE SIGNALS

Pt = Pc (1 + mt2/2)
where
mt = total modulation index

mt  m12  m2
2
 m32  ......

m1 , m2, m3 = modulation index of signal

having index 1,2,3 respectively

37
Total AM Power

 If several sine waves simultaneously

modulate the carrier.

PT  Pcarrier  PsbT
PsbT  Psb1  Psb 2  ..... PsbN

38
Exercises

 A 100KHz carrier is simultaneously modulated with

300Hz, 800Hz, and 2KHz audio sine waves. What will
be the frequencies present at the output?
 A broadcast AM transmitter radiates 50KW of carrier
power. What will be the radiated power at 85%
modulation?
 When the modulation percentage is 75,an AM
transmitter produces 10KW. How much of this is carrier
power?
 A 360W carrier is simultaneously modulated by two
audio waves with modulation %s of 65 & 55,
respectively. What is the total sideband power radiated?

39
Exercises

 A certain transmitter radiates 9KW with the carrier

unmodulated, and 10.125KW when the carrier is
sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index,
percent of modulation. If another sine wave,
corresponding to 40 percent modulation, is transmitted
simultaneously, determine the total radiated power.
 The antenna current of an AM broadcast transmitter,
modulated to a depth of 40 percent by an audio sine
wave, is 11A. It increases to 12A as a result of
simultaneous modulation by another audio sine wave.
What is the modulation index due to this second wave?

40
AM Signal Generation

Switching modulator

vc=Vcsinωct

~
vm V1(t) R V2(t)=AM

v1 t   Vc sin 2fmt  Vc sin 2f ct

v1 t , vct   0
v2 t   
0, vc t   0

41
How signal is modulated?

To produce a usable AM signal,

the carrier and intelligence must
be combine through a nonlinear
device

42
Nonlinear mixing

carrier Nonlinear device AM WAVE

data

43
44
How to generate AM using tune
circuit ?

It is necessary to apply the series of

current pulses to a tuned (resonant )
circuit
Each pulse would initiate a damped
oscillation in the tuned circuit
Initial amplitude is equal to the applied
current pulse

45
Flywheel Effect

The ability of a resonant circuit to

maintain oscillation at an essentially
constant frequency when fed with
short pulses of energy

46
47
Simple AM transmitter block
diagram

48
COMPONENTS OF AN AM
TRANSMITTER

 PREAMPLIFIER- a sensitive, class A, linear voltage amplifier with

high input impedance which raises the amplitude of the source
signal to a usable level with minimum nonlinear distortion & little
thermal noise as possible

 RF CARRIER OSCILLATOR-commonly uses crystal-controlled

units to generate the carrier signal for accuracy & stability

 BUFFER AMPLIFIER- a low-gain, high-input-impedance linear

amplifier which isolates the oscillator from the high-power amplifiers

 MODULATOR - the circuit which translates the information signal to

frequencies appropriate for transmission
-nonlinear devices that combine 2 input signals to
produce a modulated output

49
AM RECEIVER

To build up a receiver, one would probably go through the following

processes

1. The signal form the antenna is usually very small – therefore,

amplification is necessary.
2. This amplifier should be tuned to accept only the desired carrier
and sideband frequencies to avoid interference from other stations
and to minimize the receive noise
3. A circuit to detect the intelligence from the radio frequency is
required
4. Further amplification is necessary to give it sufficient power to
drive a loudspeaker

50
Two major characteristics of any
receiver

1.sensitivity- ability to drive the output

transducer to an acceptable level
2.selectivity- ability to differentiate
between the desired signal and
unwanted signal

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CONVENTIONAL AM RECEIVERS

TUNED RADIO-FREQUENCY (TRF)

RECEIVER

52
ADVANTAGE OF TRF RECEIVER

Simple in construction with a

relatively high sensitivity

53
DISADVANTAGES OF TRF
RECEIVER

1. inconsistent bandwidth when tuned over

a wide range of input frequencies
2. instability of the receiver due to the
large number of RF amplifiers tuned to
the same center frequency
3. non uniform gain over a wide frequency
range
4. insufficient adjacent-frequency rejection

54
Forms of Amplitude Modulation

1. A3E ( previously A3) DSBFC

2. R3E (previously A3A) Single sideband
Reduced carrier
3. H3E (previously A3H) Single sideband , full
carrier
4. J3E (previously A3J)Single sideband,
suppressed carrier
5. B8E (previously A3B) two independent SB
6. C3F (previously A5C) Vestigial sideband
7. Lincompex – Linked compressor and
expander
55
Double Sideband
3

Baseband
AM
BASEBAND

fm
1

-1

-2

-3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

fm
AM carrier AM bandwidth=2fm
upper sideband
lower sideband

fc fc-fm fc fc+fm

56
DSB-SC Spectrum

Spectrum is identical to before except for

the removal of the carrier(two impulses)

upper sideband
lower sideband

fc fc-fm fc fc+fm

57
Single sideband technique
(SSB)

A technique in which the carrier is

eliminated or highly suppressed, and one
of the two sidebands must be filtered out.

58
Single Sideband(SSB)

The two sidebands are identical. Only one

is sufficient to carry all the message
information. Block either the upper or
lower sideband

Bandwidth=2fm Bandwidth=fm

59
SSB Generation

One way to generate an SSB signal is

through selective filtering
DSB-AM
f

Ideal highpass filter

Leaks some of the lower sideband

60
Issues in Sideband
Suppresion

Consider a tone modulated signal with

carrier frequency of 10MHz, and message
frequency of 30Hz. Want to make a SSB
signal out of it carrier

60Hz

10MHz 10,000,030 Hz

61
Required Q’s

We are trying to separate a frequency of

10.000030 MHz from 9.999970 MHz at 10
MHz.
The required Q is
Q=10MHz/60Hz=166,667. Too high
Solution: Translate the signal down to
100KHz. There, Q=100KHz/60Hz=1666.
Achievable
62
SSB transmitter

Take a 60Hz tone message.

9,899,940 Hz
99,940 Hz 100,060 Hz 10,100,060 Hz
60Hz
200.120K

Balanced Highpass Balanced

Audio amp Power amp
modulator filter modulator

Conversion
RF carrier Passes the higher
oscillator
term
100 KHz 100,060 Hz 10 MHz

63
Power Distribution in SSB

If an SSB transmitter with total power of

10KW were to be replaced by a standard
AM signal with the same total power,
compare their respective carrier and
sideband powers
m 2 Pc m 2 Pc
PT  Pc    10 , 000
4 4
sidebands

letm  1
Pc
10 , 000  Pc   Pc  6666. 67 W
2 64
Sideband Powers

Subtracting carrier power from total power

leaves us with the sideband power
Psb  PT  Pc  10,000  6,666.67  3,333.33W
The power in one sideband is half at
1,666.67W

65
Comparisons

A 10 KW AM transmitter ends up with

1,666 watts in each sideband
A 10 KW SSB transmitter ends up with 10
KW per sideband. There is nowhere else
for the power to go

66
Commercial AM

Here are some numbers

Carrier frequencies: 540-1600 KHz
Carrier spacing:10 KHz
IF frequency:455 KHz
IF bandwidth:6-10 KHz
Audio bandwidth: 3-5KHz

67
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER

A type of receiver which mixes 2

signals in a nonlinear device &
translates the desired signal to an
intermediate frequency before
extracting the original information

68
69
COMPONENT SECTIONS OF AN
AM SUPERHETERODYNE
RECEIVER

1. RF Section
2. Local Oscillator
3. Mixer / Converter
4. IF Section
5. Detector
6. Audio Amp
7. Speaker
8. AGC

70
1. RF SECTION

a wideband RF amplifier which is the first

stage of the receiver. Often called the
receiver front end; it is mechanically tied
to the local oscillator to ensure precise
tuning characteristics. It performs the
detection, bandlimiting, & amplification of
the received RF signals.

71
2. LOCAL OSCILLATOR

a variable oscillator which provides a

signal at a certain frequency which, when
combined with the received RF signal at
the mixer stage, produces a group of
frequencies which includes the
intermediate frequency

72
LOCAL OSCILLATOR

1. High-side injection – tuning the local

oscillator frequency above the RF signal
by an amount equal to the intermediate
frequency
2. Low-side injection – tuning the local
oscillator frequency below the RF signal
by an amount equal to the intermediate
frequency

73
3. MIXER/CONVERTER SECTION

a class C nonlinear device which comes

after the RF stage. It processes the
received RF signals, producing the sum,
difference, and original RF frequencies.
The difference frequency is equal to the
intermediate frequency & will serve as the
input to the succeeding stage

74
4. IF SECTION

a very narrow bandwidth class A device

which receives the down-converted RF
signal & filters the unwanted frequency
components to prevent them from being
demodulated with the original information
signal; this section produces an amplified
signal at the output & determines the
sensitivity & selectivity of the receiver

75
5. AM detection

Diode detector
one of the simplest and most
effective types of detectors, and one
with nearly an ideal nonlinear
resistance characteristics

76
 Important motivation for
using AM is the
possibility to use the
envelope detector that
has a simple structure
(also cheap)
needs no synchronization
(e.g. no auxiliary,
unmodulated
carrier input in receiver)
no threshold effect (
SNR can be very small and
receiver still works)

77
8. AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL

a system in which the overall gain of a

radio receiver is varied automatically with
the changing strength of the received
signal to keep the output substantially
constant. It enables tuning to stations of
varying signal strengths without an
appreciable change in the volume of the
output signal, except when the change in
signal strength is enormous
78
fc=900KHz

IF=455KHz
fc=900KHz
Cross products & harmonics

fl.o.=1355KHz

79
Test Your Knowledge

1 A TRF receiver includes three stages: the

RF, ________, and audio amplifier.
a.IF b. detector
c.Trimmer d. mixer

80
2 The extent to which a receiver can
differentiate between the desired signal
and others is termed its ________.
a. Selectivity b. sensitivity
c. figure-of-merit d. gain

81
3 The main problem with the TRF design is
a. Lack of selectivity in receiving all AM
stations
b. Poor demodulation of an AM station
c. Frustration in tuning to receive more
than one station
d. Lack of sensitivity in receiving all AM
stations

82
4 The sensitivity of a receiver has to do with
its ability to
a. Withstand shock
b. Receive one station versus another
c. Receive weak stations
d. All the above

83
5 An AM signal having a carrier frequency of
940 kHz is to be mixed with a local
oscillator output signal in order to produce
an intermediate frequency of 455 kHz. At
what should the L.O. frequency be set?
a. 455 kHz b. 1395 kHz
c. 910 kHz d. 1850 kHz

84
6 A 7.0-Mhz carrier is modulated by a voice signal
that has three frequency components of 100 Hz,
200 Hz, and 300 Hz. What three frequencies
comprise the lower sideband?
a. 6.9997 Mhz, 6.9998 Mhz, and 6.9999 Mhz
b. 100 Hz, 200 Hz, and 300 Hz
c. 6.9999 Mhz, 7.0000 Mhz, and 7.0001 Mhz
d. 7.0001 Mhz, 7.0002 Mhz, and 7.0003 Mhz

85
7 The total output power of an AM
transmitter is measured to be 850 W.
What is the total output sideband power if
it has a percent modulation of 100%?
a. 425 W b. 850 W
c. 283.3 W d. 141.65 W

86
8 An AM waveform at maximum is 100 V p-
p and at minimum is 40 V p-p. The
modulation percentage is
a. 250% b. 40%
c. 25% d. 37.5%

87
9 A transmitter having a 900-W carrier
transmits 1188 W when modulated with a
single sinewave. If the carrier is
simultaneously modulated with another
sinewave at 60% modulation, calculate
the total transmitted power.
a. 1084 W b. 1170 W
c. 1350 W d. 1224 W

88
10 A carrier signal has _____.

A. constant peak amplitude

B. the information
C. frequency range of 20-20,000 Hz
D. a varying amplitude

89