HYDRAULIC

EXCAVATORS AND ITS

EMPLOYMENT
Characteristics of Excavators
 An excavator has been defined as a power-
driven digging machine, usually mounted on
crawler tracks.
 The major types of excavators used in
construction include hydraulically powered
excavators and the members of the crane-
shovel family.
 The characteristics and employment of these
machines are described below.
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 William S. Otis is usually credited with developing the
first power shovel in 1836 when he created a machine
which mechanically duplicated the motions of a worker
digging with a hand shovel.
 Adding attachments to this machine soon produced a
family of cable-operated machines known as the crane-
shovel family.
 The name of a particular piece of equipment in the
family is determined by the attachment (front end) used.
 These machines include the shovel, backhoe, dragline,
clamshell, mobile crane, and pile driver.
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 In recent years hydraulically powered machines such as the
hydraulic excavator shown in Figure 2.17 have largely
replaced the cable-operated members of the crane-shovel
family.
 Hydraulic machines are available as hydraulic excavators
(hoes) or shovels.
 In addition, clamshell and other attachments are also
available.
 Some advantages of hydraulic machines over cable-operated
machines include faster cycle time, easier operator control,
greater bucket penetrating power, and more precise digging.

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Figure 2.17: Hydraulic excavator

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 The components of an excavator include the
mounting or carrier, a revolving super-
structure (also called a revolving deck or
turntable) which contains the power and
control units, and a front-end digging
assembly.
 Three types of mounting are available as
shown in Figure 2.18.
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Figure 2.18 Mounting for hydraulic
excavators

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 A crawler mounting provides a stable platform for the revolving
superstructure and affords excellent mobility on the job site while
exerting a low ground pressure, Its low ground pressure makes this
the preferred type of mounting whenever poor soil trafficability
conditions are encountered.
 Extra wide tracks are available when especially low ground
pressures are required. Crawler tracks may be flat when traction is
not a problem, or they may be tractor-type treads when traction is
required.
 Crawler mounting is also recommended for heavy-duty and rock
excavation when increased resistance to shock and treadwear is
required.
 Because of their low travel speed (usually about 2 mi/h [3 km/h]),
crawler mounted excavators should be transported by heavy
equipment trailer when travel distance exceeds approximately 1 mi
(1.6 km). SBHSM
 Rubber-tired (truck or wheel) mountings enable an
excavator to transport itself rapidly from job to job
over highways, but they provide a less stable base
than a crawler mounting.
 A rubber-tired mounting may also be preferred
whenever very abrasive work surfaces would cause
track damage or whenever crawler tracks are
prohibited (for example, on paved roads).

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Excavator Bucket Volume
 In order to use the basic production equation to calculate the
production of an excavator, it is necessary to estimate the
volume of material actually contained in each bucket load.
 Struck volume is the volume of material contained in the
bucket when the load is struck off flush with the bucket sides.
 Heaped volume is the maximum volume of material which
would be contained in the bucket at a specified angle of
repose for the material.
 Water line volume measures the volume of material within
the bucket when the material level corresponds to the water
level that would result if the bucket were filled with water.

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 However, a more realistic estimate of material
contained in the bucket would result from
multiplying the rated bucket capacity by a
bucket fill factor or bucket efficiency factor.
 Suggested values of bucket fill, factor for
common materials are given in Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1 Bucket fill factors for
excavators and loaders.
Material Bucket Fill Factor

Common earth, loam 0.80-1.10

Sand and gravel 0.90-1.00

Hard clay 0.65-0.95

Wet clay 0.50-0.90

Rock, well blasted 0.70-0.90

Rock, poorly blasted 0.40-0.70

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 When the heaped capacity of a bucket is
known, the loose volume contained in the
bucket may be estimated as the heaped
capacity of the bucket multiplied by the
bucket fill factor.
 Loose volume may then be converted to bank
volume by multiplying the loose volume by
the soil's load factor.
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EXAMPLE 2-1
 Estimate the actual bucket load in bank
measure for a 3-yd (2.29 m) (struck) cable
shovel bucket excavating common earth.
SOLUTION
 Bucket load = 3 X 0.95 (average) = 2.85 BCY
(bank cubic yard)
 [= 2.29 X 0.95 = 2.18 BCM] (bank cubic
meter)
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EXAMPLE 2-2
 Estimate the actual bucket load in bank measure for
a hydraulic excavator whose heaped bucket capacity
is 2 LCY (1.53 LCM). The soil's bucket fill factor is
0.85 and its load factor is 0.80.
SOLUTION
 Bucket load = 2 X 0.85 = 1.70 LCY X 0.80 =
1.36 BCY (bank cubic yard)
 [= 1.53 X 0.85 = 1.30 LCM X 0.8 = 1.04 BCM]
(bank cubic meter)
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Figure 2.19: Typical hydraulic
excavator

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 The original and most common form of
hydraulically powered excavator is the
hydraulic excavator equipped with a hoe front
end ( Fig. 2.19).
 This machine is also called a hydraulic hoe or
hydraulic excavator- backhoe.
 The components of a hydraulic excavator are
illustrated in Figure 2.20.
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 Digging is accomplished by pulling the dipper toward the
machine. In the hydraulic excavators, the boom and dipper
arms are raised and lowered by hydraulic cylinder.
 In addition, the dipper is pivoted at the end of the dipper
arm and controlled by another hydraulic cylinder so that a
wrist-like action is provided.
 When the dipper is filled, the dipper is curled up to reduce
spillage, and the boom is raised and swung to the
unloading position.
 The load is then dumped by swinging the dipper up and
away from the machine.
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Figure 2.20 Components of a
hydraulic excavator

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 Dipper or buckets are available in a range of sizes
and widths for each machine size.
 Dipper width is often more important in trenching
work than is dipper capacity.
 Since the hydraulic excavator combines positive
digging action with rigid control of the bucket, it is
able to dig accurately in all but the hardest material.
 The hydraulic excavator’s major advantages are its
digging power and its ability to dig below machine
level.
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Hydraulic Excavator Employment
 The hydraulic excavator is primarily used for digging below
grade. It is especially well-suited for excavating trenches
because of its digging power and accuracy.
 Since trenches are usually excavated to a specified width and
depth.
 The best measure of production is frequently the number of
linear feet (meters) of trench excavated to the specified
dimension per unit of time.
 Therefore, the dipper width chosen should match the required
trench width or be only slightly wider.
 Since there is usually little difference in cycle time for a
hydraulic excavator with various size dippers, the largest dipper
available should be used within the machine’s capability and the
specified ditch width.
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 Hydraulic excavators are also widely used in laying
pipe.
 Because of the precision with which they can be
controlled, they not only excavate the trench but are
also used to pull the trench shield, lay bedding, set the
pipe into position, and backfill to cover the pipe joints.
 Another major application of the hydraulic excavator
is found in making basement excavations and similar
precise excavations.
 Other useful applications include cleaning roadside
ditches and sloping or grading embankment.
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 In selecting the proper hydraulic excavator to be
used in a particular application digging ranges and
clearances are important considerations. These
include the following:
 Maximum depth required
 Largest working radius required for digging or dumping
 Maximum dumping height required
 Clearance required for carrier, superstructure, and boom.
This includes surrounding building or obstacles as well as
width of cut required to provide machine clearance in a
multi-layer excavation.
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ESTIMATING EXCAVATOR
PRODUCTION
Production Estimation
 Production may be estimated using the following
equation together with Tables 2.2 and 2.3 developed
from manufacturers’ data.
 Production (LCY/h or LCM/h)
=CxSxVxBxE
Where C = Cycles/h (Table 2.2)
 S = Swing-depth factor (Table 2.3)
 V = Heaped bucket volume (LCY or LCM)
 B = Bucket fill factor (Table 2.1)
 E = Job efficiency
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 When estimating trenching production, an
adjustment factor should be applied to the
usual production calculation to account for the
material which falls back into the trench from
the trench sides during excavation and must
be rehandled.
 Thus, normal excavator production should be
multiplied by the trench adjustment factor
(Table 2.4) to estimate trenching production.
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Table 2.2 Standard cycles per hour
for hydraulic excavators.

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EXAMPLE 2-3
 Estimate the production in loose measure
(LCY or LCM) of a hydraulic excavator
having a bucket capacity of 1 LCY (0.76
LCM).
 The material is common earth. Average depth
of cut is 12ft (3.66m) and maximum depth of
cut is 21 ft (6.40m).
 Average angle of swing is 120º. Job
efficiency is estimated at 50min/h.
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SOLUTION
Standard cycles = 200/h (Table 2.2)

Depth/maximum depth = 12/21 = 0.57

Swing-depth factor = 1.00 (Table 2.3)
Bucket Volume = 1.00 LCY (0.76 LCM)
Bucket fill factor = 0.95 (Table 2.1)
Job efficiency = 50/60 = 0.833
Production = 200 x 1.00 x 1.00 x 0.95 x 0.833
= 158 LCY/h (loose cubic yard / hour)
[= 200 x 1.00 x 0.76 x 0.95 x 0.833 = 120 LCM/h ]
(loose cubic meter / hour)

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Table 2.3 Swing-depth factor for
hydraulic excavators

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 Table 2.4 Adjustment factor for
trench production

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Job Management
 As with other excavators, drainage, access and haul
roads, and soil conditions must be considered in job
planning.
 Although the hydraulic excavator will dig hard materials,
production may be increased and costs reduced by
blasting or ripping rock and hardpan prior to excavation.
 Ledge rock can often be lifted a layer at a time by the
dipper once an initial trench has been opened to expose
the end of the layers.
 Do not try to use the dipper as a pick by dropping it at its
maximum reach onto hard material.
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 The hydraulic excavator is often used to handle pipe
in a pipe-laying operation by utilizing a pipe-
handling tool attached to the dipper.
 Care should be taken to ensure that the pipe load
does not exceed the value in the manufacturer's safe
lift capacity chart for the conditions encountered.
 A number of helpful hints for effective hydraulic
excavator (hoe) operation are shown in Figure 2.21.

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Figure 2.21 Helpful hints for effective
hoe operation.
HELPFUL HINTS FOR EFFECTIVE EXCAVATOR / HOE OPERATION

1. Digging should be planned so

that dipper teeth CUT as near as 4. Using the dipper teeth as a pick axe
possible to the line of the digging by extending handle to maximum
cable. reach, then dropping front end to
2. Length and depth of cut should break ledge rock is very bad
be judged to produce a full dipper practice, the result being serious
at every pass. Full loads on every front end damage.
pass produce more pay dirt than 5. Once the trench is open, ledge rock
a faster cycle with partly filled can be broken by pulling dipper up
dipper. Full loads should be the under the layers. Top layers are
first objective, followed by speed pulled first with one or two layer lifted
increases for fast cycles. at a time.
3. A hoe will dig fairly hard
materials. Where possible,
blasting will often be less
expensive than bulling through
hardpan and rock strata with the
hoe dipper.
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