Welding

PHILIPPINE SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERS
Professional Development Course

Resource Speaker
Pacifico O. Ortaliza
PME 828
There are about 50 welding processes that are in use by
industry today. Which process to use for any given
application requires individual consideration of such
factors as equipment available, production rate, metals
to be joined, joint design including thicknesses and
configuration of joining parts and service conditions
which must be satisfied by the finish product or
structures.
Electric arc welding is the process most useful in plant
operation and maintenance, hence, we will give special
consideration in our discussion today. Electric arc
welding is the process of fusing metal through the heat
generated by an electric arc.
With the state-of-the-art welding materials and systems a
competent welders can fabricate, repair and protect
metal parts for wear and tear and save money
 There are many parts that can be saved from scrap heap
by repair and wear protection -

 For repair of cracks and breaks.

 For restoring worn metal surfaces back to dimension, to rebuild the
part and provide a tough, wear-resistant surface that lasts longer
than the original part. Prolong the service life of your critical parts
and equipment by 200%, 300% and often more by welding.

Process Selection:
For every welding job, the decision must be made whether to use
manual, semi-automatic or full-automatic welding. Once this is
decided, the choice of either AC or DC must be determined. Then
follows decisions as to special tooling, tooling, and integration of the
welding operations into the manufacturing process
Hand welding – for non-repetitive or low-production jobs, for
small welds or for odd shapes.

Semi-automatic welding – more practical answer for medium

production runs where there is considerable footage on welding, in
either long welds or repetitive short welds. Used where more
penetration is required than hand welding. Manual guiding and
simple low-cost fixture permits its use on irregular shapes.

Full-automatic welding – where the volume of welding

warrants fixture for fully automatic welding, and where fit-up and
shape of parts are satisfactory, it is possible to take advantage of
high-speed, high-quality, fully automatic welding on a great
reduction in labor cost.

The decision of which process to use is largely one of cost.

 Shielded metal-arc welding
(SMAW)
An arc welding process which uses the heat of an
electric arc between a consumable, flux covered metal
electrode and the work to be welded. The core of the
electrode provides the filler metal as it melts in the arc.
The covering of the electrode decomposes in the arc and
produces a shielding gas and also a solid covering, both
of which protect the weld formation from adverse effects
of the surrounding air.
Manually controlled process for welding ferrous metals from
18 gage up to maximum you may encounter. Allows
welding in all positions. The arc is controlled by the
weldor. And can be seen by him. Slag removal is
required in this process.
Use either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC)
 5 ESSENTIALS FOR PR0PER
WELDING PROCEDURES:
In a correctly made deposit the ripples
produced on the bead will be uniform
and the bead will be smooth with no
overlap or undercut.
1. Correct Electrode Size
2. Correct Current
3. Correct Arc Length
4. Correct Travel Speed
5. Correct Electrode Angle
 How to select electrodes for arc
welding mild and low alloy steels
Under the AWS classification system, all mild steel
and low alloy electrodes are identified by an “E”
followed by a 4 or 5 digit number.
Example: E-6012

a). “E” stands for Electrode

b). First two (or three) digits indicate tensile
strength as welded or stress relieved.
c). Third (or fourth) digit refers for welding
position
d). Fourth (or fifth) type of coating and welding
current
Eight factors must be considered in selecting
the correct mild steel or low alloy steel arc
welding electrode:
1. Base Metal Strength Properties
2. Base Metal Composition
3. Welding Position
4. Welding Current
5. Joint Design and Fit-up
6. Thickness and Shapes of Base Metal
7. Service Conditions and/or Specifications
8. Production Efficiency and Job Conditions
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW) - tig
A gas shielded arc welding process which uses the
heat of an electric arc between a non-
consumable, non-melting tungsten electrode and
the work to be welded. An inert gas shields the
arc from the atmosphere. Filler metal may or
may not be used. Filler wire is fed into the
welding puddle by hand. Consists of a tungsten
electrode, the gas shield envelope and the arc
properly set over the work piece. Both torch and
filler wire may be mechanized for automatic
welding.
 Main Features of GTAW (tig)
1. You can make a top-quality welds using almost all metals and
alloys, which include aluminum, magnesium, stainless, mild and
carbon steels; silver, silicon bronze, copper and copper alloys;
nickel and nickel alloys.
2. You can see the weld clearly.
3. No post weld cleaning is necessary
4. There is no weld metal transfer across the arc stream, eliminating
weld spatter
5. It is capable of welding a wide range of metal thicknesses and is
especially useful in making the root pass on carbon steel pipe.

Equipment:
1. Especially designed welding machine power source. Maybe be an
AC/DC rectifier or direct current generator (either motor or engine
driven). AC current for aluminum and magnesium; direct current
for stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, nickel and nickel
alloys.
2. Shielding gas and controls
3. GTAW welding torch
4. Tungsten electrodes and filler metal wires.
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
The metal is melted by the heat of a tightly
focused or constricted arc. The welding arc is
held between the tungsten electrode and the
work piece and is called a transferred arc. The
hot, ionized gas coming from the nozzle orifice,
or opening, is called a plasma. An additional
and separate gas shields the weld puddle from
the atmosphere. Filler metal may or may not be
used. A pilot arc, completely enclosed in the
torch, keeps the torch ready for starting. This is
a low current arc which keeps the tungsten hot,
eliminating the need for high frequency starting
or touch starting.
Though plasma welding is similar to GTAW it has these advantages:
1. Thin foil materials to 3/32 in. – with PAW – changes in arc length
have less effect on heat input and weld bead shape – less burn
through and less incomplete penetration problems particularly
with hand held torches.
2. Materials above 3/32”. The plasma arc has a deeply penetrating
keyhole effect. This allows full penetration , single pass welding in
flat, horizontal, and vertical position either by hand or
automatically. PAW has higher travel speeds than conventional
GTAW.
3. You can weld high temperature material (tungsten, molybdenum,
columbium, etc.) with moderate arc lengths and low currents.
Weldable materials include low alloy steels, stainless steel,
aluminum, titanium and other materials weldable with GTAW.
4. Joint alignment variations – The stable plasma arc is not easily
deflected and tolerates greater variations in joint alignment than
GTAW.
5. Weld shape – Welds have deep penetration and narrow uniform
bead
Equipment:
1. A constant-current type DC power source
2. Special plasma-arc control console
3. Welding torch
4. Gas supplies
 Semiautomatic Arc Welding
An arc welding procedure which uses consumable electrode wire,
automatically and continuously fed into the arc with the travel or
the advance of the arc manually controlled. Gas Metal Arc
Welding and Flux Cored Arc Welding use semi-automatic.
Variations of each:
1. The Gas Metal Arc Welding Process (GMAW) uses a solid
electrode wire for welding ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Shielding gas, introduced through the welding gun, protects the
weld zone from the surrounding atmosphere. Variations of
GMAW.
 The Micro-wire Welding Method utilizes a small diameter
electrode wire with a low current and provides a short circuiting
arc. It is used for welding mild and stainless steel in all positions.
The shielding gas is CO2 or CO2 plus inert gas.
 The Spray Arc Welding Method uses a relatively high current
and an argon-oxygen shielding gas. It is used for welding steel
and stainless steel in the flat and horizontal position.
• The CO2 Welding Method uses high current and pure
CO2 shielding gas. It is used for welding steels in flat and
horizontal positions
 The Metal Inert Gas Welding Method (MIG) uses an inert
shielding gas argon, helium or a mixture of both.

2. The Flux Cored Arc Welding Process (FCAW) uses a cored

electrode wire for welding ferrous metals. The wire core
contains materials to:
a). Provide deoxidizers which purify the deposited metal
b). Form a slag which protects the hot deposited weld metal
from oxidation
c). Act as arc stabilizer
d). Supply alloying elements which provide greater strength to
the deposited metal.
 Micro-wire Welding
A gas shield metal-arc welding process which uses
a small diameter, consumable electrode wire,
continuously fed into the arc. Metal is
transferred through gas protected arc column to
the work. The process may either be automatic
or semi-automatic; the semi-automatic is the
more widely used. The main features are an
electrode wire and a shielding gas directed into
the arc by lightweight, manually controlled
welding gun.
 Where It Is Used:
The main advantages of Micro-wire welding are
versatility and economy. You can weld in all
positions; the arc is visible to the weldor; there is no
slag to remove and the weld surface is smooth. Used
for welding low and medium carbon steels and low
alloy, high strengths of thin gages to medium
thickness. Welding can be performed on extremely thin
materials (20) gage, and will successfully bridge wide
gaps.

Equipment:
1. Shielding gas system and controls
2. Welding machine (CV) power source
3. Wire feeding mechanism and controls
4. Electrode wire
5. Welding gun and cable assembly
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
This IS a form of metal arc welding in which another device is used for shielding the
arc and molten metal from oxygen and the atmosphere. The heat is generated by
the passage of electric current between the end of a bare electrode wire, through
an arc, and through the base metal to be welded. Special welding machines, either
automatic or semi-automatic, are used to support and to feed the electrode wire.
Instead of permitting an air gap to exist between the electrode and the work, the
end of the electrode is submerged in a mound of finely graduated flux or slag which
generally is heaped along the joint to be welded. A high voltage, high frequency
current is used for starting the arc. As the arc generate heat, a portion of the
granulated flux surrounding the electrode end becomes molten. This molten
blanket of material is very effective in shielding the arc and the molten metal from
the atmosphere.
Very high welding currents can be employed without experiencing a violent arc.
The current applied often is four or five times as high as that used in shielded
metal arc welding with flux covered electrode. The high current generates
considerable heat which leads to deep penetration of the base metal, fast
deposition of the electrode wire, and permits high travel speed
Through the regulation of travel speed, voltage, current and other
conditions, the electrode may be deposited as a wide, nearly flat
bead with shallow penetration into the base metal or on other
extreme may consist of a narrow, high-crown reinforcement with
deep penetration into the base plate.

Current for submerged-arc welding can be either DC or AC.

Welding is performed in flat position, although some work is done in

the horizontal position. Some form of backing is always required to
prevent excessive fall-through of the weld metal from a completely
penetrated joint.

Submerged arc deposited weld metal is clean and free of injurious

porosity because of the excellent protection by the blanket of
molten slag.

There are other welding processes that are used today.

 Check points for QUALITY
WELDING
 Use only high quality welding machines, electrodes and
welding accessories
 Know the base material that you are working on.
 Select the proper welding process to give the highest
quality welds on the base material to be used.
 Select the proper welding procedure to meet the service
requirement of the finished weld.
 Select the correct electrode for the job in question.
 When preheating is specified or required make sure that
the temperature requirements are met.
 Clean the base metal of all slag, paint, grease, oil,
moisture, and any other foreign materials.
 Remove weld slag and thoroughly clean each bead prior
to making the next bead or pass.
 Do not weld over cracks or porous tack welds. Defective
tack welds should be removed prior to welding
 Be particularly alert to obtain root fusion on the first
part of fillet and groove welds.
 When root gaps of groove welds are excessive, build up
one side of the joint prior to welding the pieces together
 When the root gap is excessive in fillet welding, be sure
to increase the size of the fillet weld
 Inspect your work immediately and remove any
defective weld
 Observe the size requirement for each weld
 Appearance of the weld is smooth.
COST SAVING HINTS
Welding is the most economical method of joining metals.
We should find ways to save time and materials to make
welding the most advantageous. The following hints will
help to lower arc welding costs:
Material. Select an easily weldable material that will not
require expensive electrodes
Joint Design. On heavier material, double bevel and see
joints save considerable material
Rolled Sections and Forming. Use bends and rolled
angle channels, etc. to reduce the number of weld joints
required
Distortion Control. Use wandering or back step
sequence to reduce warpage and keep material in line
to reduce the machining necessary
Proper Fit. Wide gaps between pieces to be welded
waste weld metal.
Fillet Weld Size. Fillet weld size must be closely controlled.
Overwelding and Reinforcement. Extra reinforcement and
unequal legged fillets waste weld metal.
Positioning. Position the job for flat welding if at all possible. This is
most efficient position. It allows use of larger electrode. It is easier
and more comfortable to the weldor.
Electrode Size. Use the largest size electrode possible. Large size
electrode cost less and increase the welding speed.
Arc Length. Keep a short arc. This will concentrate all of the welding
in the joint and will minimize spatter.
Electrode Type. Select the higher production type electrode for cost
savings.
Stub Ends. Burn electrode to a 2” stub length.
Machine Efficiency. Match the welding machine to the job
Cable size and Length. Too small cable will heat up. Too long waste
power
Loose Connections. Loose connections or broken wire waste power
 WHY DO WELDING FAIL
1. PREPARATIONS of sections or parts to be welded not properly
cleaned, grooved, jigged
2. PROCEDURES on how to weld, pre-heating, position not defined
3. CHOICE OF WELDING ALLOYS, base metal to be welded was
not identified, and size of the welding rod is either too small or
too bid
4. EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES, welding machine was not in
good condition, electrode holder already worn out, welding cables
have exposed wires, and the ground clamp is also loose.
5. INABILITY TO IDENTIFY THE BASE METAL, must know the
different welding characteristics of the metal to be welded
6. LACK OF COORDINATION BETWEEN THE SUPERVISOR
AND THE WELDER, instructions on how to do work.
7. WELDER’S INEFFICIENCY, weldor to do the work is not
skilled, new in the job, or stubborn
8. EDUCATION AND INFORMATIONS, supervisor and weldor do
not have enough knowledge in welding
9. WELDING MATERIALS BOUGHT IS PROBABLY DEFECTIVE,
old stock, moist coating, eccentric core wire, coating
peeled off
10. BUYING CHEAP PRODUCTS
 INSPECTION OF WELDING
 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Visual inspection
Surface appearance of welds
Conformity of welds with drawings
Magnetic particle and liquid penetrant
tests
Radiography
 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Chemical
Mechanical
Metallographic