ME 259

Heat Transfer
Lecture Slides II

Dr. Gregory A. Kallio

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
Mechatronic Engineering &
Manufacturing Technology
California State University, Chico

1/22/05 ME 259 1
Steady-State Conduction
Heat Transfer
Incropera & DeWitt coverage:

Chapter 2: General Concepts of

Heat Conduction
Chapter 3: One-Dimensional,
Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional,
Steady-State Conduction

1/22/05 ME 259 2
General Concepts of Heat
Conduction

Reading: Incropera & DeWitt

Chapter 2

1/22/05 ME 259 3
Generalized Heat Conduction

Fouriers law, 1-D form:

k dT
qx
dx
Fouriers law, general form:

q kT

- q is the heat flux vector, which has three

components; in Cartesian coordinates:

q qxi qy j qzk

2
2

q q x q y qz2
(magnitude)

1/22/05 ME 259 4
The Temperature Gradient

T is the temperature gradient, which is:

a vector quantity that points in direction of
maximum temperature increase
always perpendicular to constant
temperature surfaces, or isotherms
T T T
T i j k (Cartesian)
x y z

T 1 T T
T i j k (Cylindrical)
r r z

T 1 T 1 T
T i j k (Spherical)
r r r sin

1/22/05 ME 259 5
Thermal Conductivity

k is the thermal conductivity of the material

undergoing conduction, which is a tensor
quantity in the most general case:

k k ( x, y , z , t , T )
most materials are homogeneous, isotropic,
and their structure is time-independent;
hence:
k k (T ),

which is a scalar and usually assumed to

be a constant if evaluated at the average
temperature of the material

1/22/05 ME 259 6
Total Heat Rate

Total heat rate (q) is found by integrating

the heat flux over the appropriate area:

q q dA
A

k and T must be known in order to

calculate q from Fouriers law
k is usually obtained from material property
tables
to find T, another equation is required;
this additional equation is derived by
applying the conservation of energy
principle to a differential control volume
undergoing conduction heat transfer; this
yields the general Heat Diffusion
(Conduction) Equation

1/22/05 ME 259 7
Heat Diffusion (Conduction)
Equation

For a homogeneous, isotropic solid material

undergoing heat conduction:

T T T T
k k k q c
x x y y z z t

Cylindrical and spherical coordinate system

forms given in text (p. 64-65)
This is a second-order, partial differential
equation (PDE); its solution yields the
temperature field, T(x,y,z,t), within a given
solid material

1/22/05 ME 259 8
Heat Diffusion (Conduction)
Equation

For constant thermal conductivity (k):

2T 2T 2T q 1 T
2 2 ,
x 2
y z k t
where :
k
(thermal diffusivit y)
c
For k = constant, steady-state conditions,
and no internal heat generation ( q 0) :
2T 2T 2T
2 2 0, or 2T 0
x 2
y z
this is known as Laplaces equation, which
appears in other branches of engineering
science (e.g., fluids, electrostatics, and
solid mechanics)
1/22/05 ME 259 9
Boundary Conditions and Initial
Condition

Boundary Conditions: known conditions at

solution domain boundaries
Initial Condition: known condition at t = 0
Number of boundary conditions required to
solve the heat diffusion equation is equal to the
number of spatial dimensions multiplied by two
There is only one initial condition, which takes
the form
T ( x, y, z,0) Ti

where Ti may be a constant or a function of

x,y, and z

1/22/05 ME 259 10
Types of Boundary Conditions for
Conduction Problems

Specified surface temperature, e.g.,

T (0, y, z, t ) T0

Specified surface heat flux, e.g.,

T
k q0
x x 0

Specified convection (h, T given), e.g.,

T
k hT T (0, y, z, t )
x x 0

Specified radiation (, Tsur given), e.g.,

k
T
x

Tsur
4
T 4 (0, y, z, t )
x 0
1/22/05 ME 259 11
Solving the Heat Diffusion
Equation

Choose a coordinate system that best fits

the problem geometry.
Identify the independent variables (x,y,z,t),
e,g, is it a S-S problem? Is conduction 1-D,
2-D, or 3-D? Justify assumptions.
Determine if k can be treated as constant
and if q 0.
Write the general heat conduction equation
using the chosen coordinates.
Reduce equation to simplest form based
upon assumptions.
Write boundary conditions and initial
condition (if applicable).
Obtain a general solution for T(x,y,z,t) by
some method; if impossible, resort to
numerical methods.

1/22/05 ME 259 12
Solving the Heat Diffusion
Equation, cont.

Solve for the constants in the general

solution by applying the boundary
conditions and initial condition to obtain a
particular solution.
Check solution for correctness (e.g., at
boundaries or limits such as x = 0, t = 0,
t , etc.)
Calculate heat flux or total heat rate using
Fouriers law, if required.
Optional: rearrange solution into a
nondimensional form

1/22/05 ME 259 13
Example:

GIVEN: Rectangular copper bar of dimensions

L x W x H is insulated on the bottom and
initially at Ti throughout . Suddenly, the ends
are subjected and maintained at temperatures
T1 and T2 , respectively, and the other three
sides are exposed to forced convection with
known h, T.
FIND: Governing heat equation, BCs, and
initial condition

1/22/05 ME 259 14
One-Dimensional, Steady-
State Heat Conduction

Reading: Incropera & DeWitt,

Chapter 3

1/22/05 ME 259 15
1-D, S-S Conduction in Simple
Geometries w/o Heat Generation

Plane Wall
L

if k = constant, general heat diffusion

equation reduces to
d 2T d dT
0 or 0
dx 2
dx dx

separating variables and integrating yields

dT
C1 and then T ( x) C1 x C2
dx

where T(x) is the general solution; C1 and

C2 are integration constants that are
determined from boundary conditions
1/22/05 ME 259 16
1-D, S-S Conduction in Simple
Geometries w/o Heat Generation

Plane Wall, cont.

suppose the boundary conditions are
T ( x 0) Ts1 and T ( x L) Ts 2

integration constants are then found to be

Ts 2 Ts1
C1 and C2 Ts1
L

the particular solution for the temperature

distribution in the plane wall is now

x
T ( x) (Ts 2 Ts1 ) Ts1
L

1/22/05 ME 259 17
1-D, S-S Conduction in Simple
Geometries w/o Heat Generation

Plane wall, cont.

The conduction heat rate is found from
Fouriers law:

q kA
dT
kAC1
kA
Ts1 Ts 2
dx L

If k were not constant, e.g., k = k(T), the

analysis would yield

k (T )dT qx C
note that the temperature distribution would be
nonlinear, in general

1/22/05 ME 259 18
1-D, S-S Conduction in Simple
Geometries w/o Heat Generation

Electric Circuit Analogy

heat rate in plane wall can be written as

(Ts1 Ts 2 ) temperature difference

q
L / kA material constant

in electrical circuits we have Ohms law:

V
i
R
analogy:
q (heat rate) i (current)
T (temperature) V (voltage)
L
(thermal resistance) R (electric resistance)
kA

1/22/05 ME 259 19
Thermal Circuits for Plane Walls

Series Systems

Parallel Systems

1/22/05 ME 259 20
Thermal Circuits for Plane Walls,
cont.

Complex Systems

1/22/05 ME 259 21
Thermal Resistances for Other
Geometries Due to Conduction

Cylindrical Wall

r2
r1
l

ln( r2 / r1 )
Rt
2k

Spherical Wall
r2

r1

1 / r1 1 / r2
Rt
4k

1/22/05 ME 259 22
Convective & Radiative Thermal
Resistance

Convection
Ts T
q hA(Ts T )
1 / hA
1
Rt ,conv (convective thermal resistance)
hA

Radiation
Ts T
q hr A(Ts T )
1 / hr A
where hr (Ts T )(Ts2 T2 )
1
Rt ,rad (radiative thermal resistance)
hr A

1/22/05 ME 259 23
Critical Radius Concept

Since the surface areas of cylinders and

spheres increase with r, there exist competing
heat transfer effects with the addition of
insulation under convective boundary
conditions (see Example 3.4)
A critical radius (rcr) exists for radial systems,
where:
adding insulation up to this radius will
increase heat transfer
adding insulation beyond this radius will
decrease heat transfer
For cylindrical systems, rcr = kins/h
For spherical systems, rcr = 2kins/h

1/22/05 ME 259 24
Thermal Contact Resistance
Thermal contact resistance exists at solid-solid
interfaces due to surface roughness, creating
gaps of air or other material:
A

B
q

TA TB Rt,c
Rt ,c
qAc Ac
where Ac apparent contact area
Rt,c thermal resistance per unit area (m 2 K/W)

1/22/05 ME 259 25
Thermal Contact Resistance

Rt,c is usually experimentally measured and

depends upon
thermal conductivity of solids A and B
surface finish & cleanliness
contact pressure
gap material
temperature at contact plane

See Tables 3.1, 3.2 for typical values

1/22/05 ME 259 26
EXAMPLE

Given: two, 1cm thick plates of milled, cold-

rolled steel, 3.18m roughness, clean, in air
under 1 MPa contact pressure
Find: Thermal circuit and compare thermal
resistances

1/22/05 ME 259 27
1-D, S-S Conduction in Simple
Geometries with Heat Generation

Thermal energy can be generated within a

material due to conversion from some other
energy form:
Electrical
Nuclear
Chemical

Governing heat diffusion equation if k =

constant:
2T q / k 0
d 2T
where T 2
2

dx
for Cartesian systems

1/22/05 ME 259 28
S-S Heat Transfer from Extended
Surfaces (i.e., fins)

Consider plane wall exposed to convection

where Ts>T:

How could you enhance q ?

increase h
decrease T
increase As (attach fins)

1/22/05 ME 259 29
Fin Nomenclature

x = longitudinal direction of fin

L = fin length (base to tip)
Lc = fin length corrected for tip area
W = fin width (parallel to base)
t = fin thickness at base
Af = fin surface area exposed to fluid
Ac = fin cross-sectional area, normal to heat flow
Ap = fin (side) profile area
P = fin perimeter that encompasses Ac
D = pin fin diameter
Tb = temperature at base of fin

1/22/05 ME 259 30
1-D Conduction Model for Thin Fins

If L >> t and k/L >> h, then the temperature

gradient in the longitudinal direction (x) is much
greater than that in the transverse direction (y);
therefore

q qxi (1 - D conduction)

Another way of viewing fin heat transfer is to

imagine 1-D conduction with a negative heat
generation rate along its length due to
convection

1/22/05 ME 259 31
Fin Performance

Fin Effectiveness
HT from single fin
f
HT from base area w/o fin
qf

hAc ,b (Tb T )

Fin Efficiency
HT from single fin
f
HT if entire fin were at Tb
qf qf

qmax hAf (Tb T )
for a straight fin of uniform cross-section:
tanh( mLc )
f
mLc
where Lc = L + t / 2 (corrected fin length)
1/22/05 ME 259 32
Calculating Single Fin Heat Rate
from Fin Efficiency

Calculate corrected fin length, Lc

Calculate profile area, Ap
Ap ,rec Lc t , Ap ,tri 12 Lt , Ap , par 13 Lt ,

Evaluate parameter

L3c/ 2 h / kAp mLc / 2 for rectangular fins
Determine fin efficiency f from Figure 3.18,
3.19, or Table 3.5
Calculate maximum heat transfer rate from fin:
q f ,max hA f (Tb T )

Calculate actual heat rate:

q f f q f ,max

1/22/05 ME 259 33
Maximum Heat Rate for Fins of
Given Volume

Analysis:
dq f
Set 0 with Ap constant
dL

Optimal design results:

L3c/ 2 h / kAp 1.0035 for rectangular profile

1.3094 for triangular profile

1.7536 for concave parabolic profile

3
for annular, rectangular profile
r2 / r1 2

1/22/05 ME 259 34
Fin Thermal Resistance

Fin heat rate:

q f f q f ,max f hAf (Tb T )

Tb T

1 / f hAf

Define fin thermal resistance:

1
Rt , f
f hAf
Single fin thermal circuit:

1/22/05 ME 259 35
Analysis of Fin Arrays

Total heat transfer =

heat transfer from N fins +
heat transfer from exposed base
qt Nq f qb N f hAf b hAb b
h b N f Af Ab
Thermal circuit:

where

Rt",c 1 1
Rt ,c , Rt , f , Rb,conv
NAc,b N f hAf hAb

1/22/05 ME 259 36
Analysis of Fin Arrays, cont.

Overall thermal resistance:

1
Rt ,o ( c )
o ( c ) hAt
NAf f
where o ( c ) 1 1
At C1
C1 1 f hA f Rt,c / Ac ,b
At NAf Ab (total surface area of array)

Tb T
then qt
Rt ,o ( c )

1/22/05 ME 259 37
Example

Given: Annular array of 10 aluminum fins,

spaced 4mm apart C-C, with inner and outer
radii of 1.35 and 2.6 cm, and thickness of 1
mm. Temperature difference between base and
ambient air is 180C with a convection
coefficient of 125 W/m2-K. Contact resistance
of 2.75x10-4 m2-K/W exists at base.

Find: a) Total heat rate w/o and with fins

b) Effect of Rt,c on heat rate

1/22/05 ME 259 38
Two-Dimensional, Steady-
State Heat Conduction

Reading: Incropera & DeWitt

Chapter 4

1/22/05 ME 259 39
Governing Equation

Heat Diffusion Equation reduces to:

2T 0 (Laplace' s equation)
or
2T 2T
2 0 (2 - D, cartesian)
x 2
y

Solving the HDE for 2-D, S-S heat conduction

by exact analysis is impossible for all but the
most simple geometries with simple boundary
conditions.

1/22/05 ME 259 40
Solution Methods

Analytical Methods
Separation of variables (see section 4.2)
Laplace transform
Similarity technique
Conformal mapping
Graphical Methods
Plot isotherms & heat flux lines
Numerical Methods
Finite-difference method (FDM)
Finite-element method (FEM)

1/22/05 ME 259 41
Conduction Shape Factor

The heat rate in some 2-D geometries that

contain two isothermal boundaries (T1, T2) with
k = constant can be expressed as

q Sk (T1 T2 )

where S = conduction shape factor

(see Table 4.1)

Define 2-D thermal resistance:

1
Rt ,cond ( 2 D )
Sk

1/22/05 ME 259 42
Conduction Shape Factor, cont.

Practical applications:
Heat loss from underground spherical
tanks: Case 1
Heat loss from underground pipes and
cables: Case 2, Case 4
Heat loss from an edge or corner of an
object: Case 8, Case 9
Heat loss from electronic components
mounted on a thick substrate: Case 10

1/22/05 ME 259 43