Power Transmission and Distribution

Power System Structure

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Generation Transmission / Sub transmission Distribution

Medium 24 kV Extra High Voltage 765 kV

Medium Voltage 33 kV
Voltage 21 kV 400 kV
22 kV
15 kV 220 kV 11 kV
13.8 kV High Voltage 132 kV
110 kV
66 kV

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Energy Automation Badiya Page 1

 Power Transmission and Distribution

System Disturbances
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Short Circuits in earthed systems

Symmetrical (3 phase)
Phase to Phase (and Earth)
Phase to Earth

Earth Faults in non effectively

earthed systems

Overload Conditions

Underfrequency/Undervoltage

Overvoltage

Energy Automation Badiya Page 2

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Protective Relaying
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Role of Protection

Protective Relaying is the most important feature of

power system design aimed at minimising the
damage to equipment and interruption to service in
the event of faults. It is therefore a co-factor
among other factors resorted to improve reliability
of power system.

Energy Automation Badiya Page 3

 Power Transmission and Distribution

The Purpose of Protection

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

The protection can not prevent system faults,

But it can:
Limit the damage caused by short
circuits

While:
Protecting people and plant from
damage

Selectively clearing faults in

miliseconds

Protecting plant from overload

conditions

Power system must operate in a safe manner at all times.

Energy Automation Badiya Page 4

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Causes and Probability of System Disturbances

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Causes
 Operator Mistakes
 Pollution/Condensation
 Equipment failures, e.g. P.T.'s, Isolators
 Transient Overvoltages
Probability
 System faults (220/400 kV): 3p.a. and 100 km
 10-20 kV metal clad switchgear: 10-3 p.a. and feeder
 GIS switchgear: 5-10-2 p.a. and bus
 outdoor switchgear: 110/132 kV 7*10-2 p.a. -1and bus
220/275 kV 10 p.a. and bus
400 kV 2*10-1 p.a. and bus

Energy Automation Badiya Page 5

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Principles of Relaying
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Since protective relaying comes into action at the time of

equipment distress, a certain safeguard is necessary in
the unlikely event of its failure to act at the hour of need.
Hence, two groups of protective schemes are generally
employed -

a) Primary Protection
b) Back-up Protection

Primary Protection is the first line of defense, whereas

back-up relaying takes over the protection of equipment,
should the primary protection fail.
Energy Automation Badiya Page 6
 Power Transmission and Distribution

Primary Protection
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

The Primary Protection has following characteristic features -

1. It has always a defined zone of operation.

2. It should operate before any back-up protection

could operate, therefore, it should be faster in
operation.

3. It should be able to completely isolate the fault

from all the current feeding sources.

4. It should be stable for all operating conditions.

Energy Automation Badiya Page 7

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Back-up Protection
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

1. Back-up protection should provide sufficient time

for the primary protection to perform its duty.

2. Back-up protection covers a wider zone of

protection. Therefore, there is always a possibility
of large scale disturbance, when back-up relays
operate.

3. Under primary protection failure, several back-up

relays may operate for complete isolation of fault.

Energy Automation Badiya Page 8

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Reasons of Primary Protection Failure

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Primary protections failure could be due to any of the

following reasons -
1. Current or Potential Transformer failure
2. Loss of Auxiliary Control Voltage
3. Defective Primary Relays
4. Open Circuits in Control & Trip Coil
5. Failure of Breaker

It is therefore logical that back-up relays should not

utilise any of the above items as common with primary
relays.

Energy Automation Badiya Page 9

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection Concept
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Circuit Breaker
CT / VT

Cabling

DISTANCE RELAY

Protection Battery

 The system is only as strong as the weakest link!

Energy Automation Badiya Page 10

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Basic Protection
No. 1 with
Energy Automation Requirements
 Reliability dependability (availability)
high dependability = low risk of failure to trip

 Security stable for all operating conditions ,

high security = low risk of over-trip

 Speed high speed minimizes damage

high speed reduces stability problems

 Selectivity trip the minimum number of circuit breakers

 Sensitivity notice smallest fault value

Energy Automation Badiya Page 11

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Zones of Protection
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

 To limit the extent of the power system that is disconnected when a fault
occurs, protection is arranged in zones
 Zones of protection should overlap, so that no part of the power system is left
unprotected
 Location of the CT connection to the protection usually defines the zone
 Unit type protections have clear zones reach e.g Diff. Relay, REF relay
 Zone reach depends on measurement of the system quantities e.g OC , EF,
distance relays . The start will be defined but the extent (or ‘reach’) is subject
to variation, owing to changes in system conditions and measurement errors.

Energy Automation Badiya Page 12

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection - One Out of Two Principle

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Trip Trip
System Coil Coil System
1 1 2 2

Battery 1 Battery 2

Energy Automation Badiya Page 13

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Redundancy Concept of DC Circuits

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Battery 1
Battery 2

Main Protection Back-up Protection Busbar Protection

87T 50/51 87BB BF

TR TR TR

TC 1 TC 2
Trip remote infeed
L- L-

Energy Automation Badiya Page 14

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Factors that influence fault current magnitude

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Infeed Line Consumer

• Short circuit power of the infeed

• Voltage level
• Line impedance
• Fault resistance (arc)
• Treatment of star point

Estimate of short circuit currents:

Medium Voltage (10 kV upto 30kV) ISCmin > ILmax
High Voltage (110 kV) ISCmin >= ILmax
Extra High Voltage (220kV + ) ISCmin = 0,25 ILmax

Energy Automation Badiya Page 15

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Earth faults: Star-point configuration

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

R L

earthed system Peterson Coil isolated neutral

• Earth fault = short circuit • Earth faults = no short circuit
is recognised by normal • Supply is not disrupted
over-current protection. • Earth fault must be alarmed and removed
• With low impedance earthing as fast as possible
the residual current detection • Earth fault location is achieved with
must be more sensitive. wattmetric earth fault detection

Energy Automation Badiya Page 16

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection Criterion - Current

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

 The overcurrent condition is evaluated I>

 Suitable for:
I> I
ILmax ISCmin

 Additional criterion - Time

(to ensure selectivity)
Protection:
 Fuses
 inverse time protection (IDMT)
 definite time protection (DT)

Energy Automation Badiya Page 17

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection Criterion - Current Difference

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

 Evaluation of node I1 + I2 + I3 + ... In = 0; if the equation is not

satisfied the fault is internal
 Security is increased by stabilisation |I1|+|I2|+ ... |In| = Istab
 Characteristic:
Idiff
Trip

Istab
 definite distinction internal / external faults (no back-up)
Protection:
 Line differential protection
 Generator-, motor-, transformer differential protection
 Busbar protection

Energy Automation Badiya Page 18

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Protection Criterion - Impedance

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

 From the voltage and current signals the

impedance is calculated
 The impedance is proportional to the fault distance
 Characteristic:

Z<

 Additional criterion - Time

(Required for selectivity and back-up protection)
Protection:
 Multiple stage distance protection

Energy Automation Badiya Page 19

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Measured signals and time grading principle

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

A B
Protected object

Protection
device

t Example distance protection

t3

t2
t1

A Z1 B Z2 l

Energy Automation Badiya Page 20

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Comparison Protection Principle

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

A B
Protected object

Protection
device

Protection Protection
device communication
device
momentary values/
binary decisions
t

A B

Energy Automation Badiya Page 21

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Typical Distance Zone Characteristics

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

MHO-circle combined circle- X

X ZA and straight line
ZSC'
characteristic starting zone

external
ZSC fault Zone 3

internal Zone 2
fault
  Zone 1
R
R

X
polarised polygonal tripping
MHO-circle characteristic
RF (quadrilateral)

ZS = 0 ZL X settable arc compensation

XA
R
ZL
RLB
ZS small
RA R
ZS large
ZS

Energy Automation Badiya Page 22

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Further Typical Protection

No. 1 with
Energy Automation Criteria
 Current increase
 Under and over voltage
 Directional comparison
 Phase comparison
 Power direction
 Phase angle
 Over and under frequency
 Frequency gradient
 Harmonics
 Special criteria in machine protection

Energy Automation Badiya Page 23

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Typical Protected
No. 1 with
Energy Automation Objects

 Generators G < 1MVA upto 1500 MVA

 Transformers 0,1 MVA upto 1000 MVA

 Busbars from 110 kV up to 750kV

 Lines from 1kV upto 750 kV

 Motors M approx. 100 kVA upto 20 MVA

 Reactors, Capacitor etc.

Energy Automation Badiya Page 24

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Redundancy Concepts
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Line Protection Busbar Protection

1 out of 2 principle 2 out of 2 principle

LP1 Section
1 trip line 1 trip section 1
&
LP2
Check
Zone
Transformer Protection

1 out of n principle Section & trip section 2

Relay
1 2
. trip transformer
. 1
.
Relay
n

Energy Automation Badiya Page 25

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Stability Limits in Transmission System

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

70

60 stability limit
Protection 50
Fault
Clearing 40
Time
ms 30

20

10

0
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 Line
Load
MW

Energy Automation Badiya Page 26

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Failure Rate of Redundant Systems

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

0.12

0.1
active failure (over trip)
Failure
rate 0.08

0.06

0.04
passive failure (under trip)
0.02

0
number of relays
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Energy Automation Badiya Page 27

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Why Digital Protection?

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Integration of the protection functions for one feeder:

Feeder protection device

Example: overhead line of extra high voltage

 Distance protection with I>> or u</i>-exitation
 Three-pole reclosure
 Directional earth fault detection
 Fault location
 Event log
 Fault recording

Energy Automation Badiya Page 28

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Why Digital Protection?

No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Self-supervision

Raising of the availability

 Plausibility control of the input values

 Supervision of the a/d-conversion
 Internal testing of the computer systems (watch-dog)
 Supervision of the memory chips
 Testing the trip-relay-coil

Energy Automation Badiya Page 29

 Power Transmission and Distribution

Contact Terms
No. 1 with
Energy Automation

Contacts provide electrical outputs for tripping and remote

indication purposes
Self-reset
 The contacts remain in the operated condition only while the controlling quantity is applied,
returning to their original condition when it is removed.
Hand or electrical reset
 These contacts remain in the operated condition after the controlling quantity is removed. They
can be reset either by hand or electrically by an auxiliary electromagnetic element
A 'make' contact
 is one that closes when the relay picks up
A break contact
 is one that is closed when the relay is de-energised and opens when the relay picks up.

Energy Automation Badiya Page 30