TRANSPORT PLANNING
Introduction
Transport projects are normally
justified for the improvements in
Traffic flow and safety
Savings in energy consumption and
travel time
Economic growth,
Increased accessibility, etc
2
Introduction
Some other transport projects, however, may
be selected for other reasons:
To stimulate employment in a particular region
To compete with other cities or states for prestige
To attract industry
To respond to pressures from political constituency, or
To gain personal benefits from a particular route location or
construction projects
In some instances transport projects may not
be selected because of opposition from those
who would be adversely affected by the
project.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
What is Transport Planning?
A rational way of furnishing unbiased
information about the effects of the
proposed transport project on the
community and on its expected users
to decision makers.
Different Scales of transport planning:
National > Regional > Local
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
Some Terminologies
Journey: complete excursion (out & back)
Trip: a one way journey
Mode: means of transport used (could be
private/public on an aggregate level or
could be solo car driver, car passenger, )
Origin: place where trip started
Destination: place where trip ended
O-D/Demand/Trip matrix: matrix of trips from
particular origins to particular destinations.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
Elements of Transport
Planning
Facility
Inventory
Socio-economic and
Land-use data base
Objectives
Identify
deficiencies
and opportunities
Monitor
System
Performance
Develop &
Analyze
Alternatives
(transport models)
Evaluate
Alternatives
Implement
Plan
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
Facility Inventory
Involves inventory of:
the existing transport services,
the available facilities and their conditions
location of routes and schedules
maintenance and operation costs
system capacity and existing traffic
volumes, speed, delay,
property and equipment
etc.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
Example Facility Inventory
Road X
is a major arterial system
Has n lanes of widths w1, , wn
It has a capacity of C
Average flow is q veh/hr, speed is d sec
Has 4 signalised junctions and 6 priority
junctions
Lanes are marked
Etc.
Travel time on Route Y is t sec
Such data could be coded into GIS system
and should be updated regularly!
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
Socio-economic and Land-use
Data
Transport plan focuses on the provision of
transport facilities and services to meet the
existing or expected demand for travel.
Transport is a DERIVED DEMAND: trips are
taken to accomplish some activity at the
destination
Transport Planning should be related to the
types of activities (i.e. land use, e.g. schools,
shopping centres and central business districts,
residential area, ) in a region and the
characteristics of the trip maker (e.g. income, HH
size, cars in HH, education, )
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
Goals & Objectives
Goals are general statements that
indicate desired ultimate achievement
of a transport plan
Example:
Meet the mobility needs of the
population
Provide enhanced economic
development opportunities
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
10
Objectives
Objectives are more specific statements that
indicate the means by which these goals will be
achieved
Examples:
reduce congestion, protect the environment, avoid
accidents, improve accessibility
Identification of goals and objectives is critical
in that they define the evaluation criteria
(measure of effectiveness) that will be used
later in the planning process to asses the
relative impact of alternative projects and
strategies.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
11
Possible Objectives 1
Economic Efficiency: maximizing the net benefits
in resource terms, of the provision of transport (e.g.
faster travel time net of increased noise and
pollution),.
Environmental Pollution: reducing the impact of
transport facilities, and their use, on the
environment of both users and non-users. Typical
impacts could be: noise, atmospheric pollution,
severance, loss of intrinsically valuable objects
(flora & fauna, ancient monuments, )
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
12
Possible Objectives 2
Safety: concerned with reducing the loss of
life, injuries, and damage to property
resulting from transport accidents
Accessibility (ease of reaching) is
concerned with increasing the ability with
which people in different locations, and with
differing availability of transport can reach
different types of facility. It can simply be
measured in terms of the time spent
travelling.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
13
Possible Objectives 2
Sustainability: development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own
needs (Brundtland, 1987)
Considers the trade-off between efficiency and accessibility on
the one hand and environment and safety on the other
Economic Generation: involves reinforcing
the land-use plans of the area. It could be just be
providing new infrastructure and service OR could
be by enhancing improving the image of the area.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
14
Possible Objectives 4
Equity: is concerned with ensuring that the
benefits of transport strategies are
reasonably equally distributed or are
focused particularly on those with special
needs (e.g. low income residents, elderly
and disabled people, )
Finance: is defined as minimising the
financial outlay (capital - revenue) for a
strategy
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
15
System Deficiencies and
Opportunities
Tries to answer questions like:
Where do problems exist?
Are this problems existing now
or will occur in the future?
Are there opportunities of better
using the existing transport
system
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
16
Develop and Analyse
Alternatives
Different strategies or
alternatives are assessed in
terms of demand, level of
service, revenue,
environmental pollution, etc
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
17
Evaluate Alternatives
Evaluations should be based on the
objectives set and should be based on
appropriate indicators for the stated
objectives
In the Developed World it has become to place money values on
casualties and accidents of differing severity
Efficiency: Vehicle Operating Costs, Travel
Time Savings,
Safety: Value of Life
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
18
Implement Plan
Once the transport project is selected,
a detailed design phase is begun, in
which each of the components of the
facility is specified.
In case of the number of projects
exceed the available funding during
implementation, projects are
prioritised depending on their benefits
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
19
Monitor System Performance
Need
To identify where improvements could be made
It incorporates the results of
Transport management system
Pavement management system
Bridge management system
Safety management system
Public transport system
Inter-modal management system
Congestion management system
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
20
Forecasting Travel Demand
The number of persons or vehicles that can
be expected to travel on a given segment
or future (inc. modified) transport system
under a set of given land-use, socioeconomic, and environmental conditions
Methods range from simple extrapolation of
observed trends to a sophisticated
computerised process involving extensive
data gathering and mathematical
modelling.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
21
Demand Forecasts - Types
Urban Travel Demand Forecasts: requires data
that give insight into characteristics of the
trip maker (age, sex, income, mode of travel,
) collected using Household Interview &
Roadside Interview Surveys. Such data can be
used as they are (disaggregated) or can be
aggregated into zones
Intercity Travel Demand Forecasts: data is
generally aggregated to a greater extent than
for urban travel forecasting.
E.g.: City Population, Avg. City Income, Travel Time
(or Cost of Travel) b/n cities,
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
22
Urban Travel Demand
Forecasts
Factors influencing travel
demand
Land-use characteristics:
Shopping centres
Residential complexes
Industrial
Office Building
Socio-Economic Characteristics
Availability of Transport Facilities and
Level of Service (travel time, cost,
convenience, comfort, safety, etc.)
provided by facilities
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
24
Defining the Study Area
Subdividing the study area into traffic
zones is a necessary first step before
collecting and summarizing the study area
Criteria in Zoning:
Homogeneous socio-economic characteristics
Minimum intra-zonal trips
Physical, political, and historical boundaries
Zones should not be defined within other zones
The zoning system should generate & attract
approximately equal trips, contain approx. equal
no. of households, population,
Use census tract boundaries where possible
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
25
Data Collection 1
Road Use Studies: determine relative
use of various parts of the
transportation network.
Personal Interviews on: total mileage
driven/month, frequency of travel, choice
of route,
Transport Facility & Traffic Studies:
Involve determination: speeds, traffic
volumes, travel times, delays, parking
facilities, parking habits,
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
26
Data Collection 2
Travel (OD) Survey: involved data
collection on:
Origins, Destinations, Trip Purpose, Mode of
Travel, Social & Economic characteristics of
trip maker, car-occupancy, type of good
transported (for freight),
General Classification of Travel Surveys:
1.
2.
3.
4.
HH travel surveys
Road-side travel surveys
Modal surveys
Goods movement surveys
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
27
Transportation System
Modelling
Transportation System
Modelling
Purpose is to help transport planners
make reliable forecasts of traffic
demand that reflect the effects of
changes in population, social, and
economic conditions as well as
changes in the transport network.
Reliable forecast of future traffic
reduces a risk of building facilities that
will either receive little use or be
prematurely overloaded.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
29
Basic concepts in Transport Systems
Modelling
1.
2.
3.
4.
Trip making is a function of land use
Trips are made for different purposes
Trips are made at different times of the day
Travellers often have different options
available to them
5. Modal choice is made to minimise the level
of inconvenience associated with reaching
a destination (travel time, cost, etc.)
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
30
The Four Stage Model
Trip Generation (predicts origins,
destinations, and frequency)
Trip Distribution (predicts the O-D
matrix)
Modal Split (predicts mode)
Trip Assignment (predicts route
choice)
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
31
Alternative Approaches to the
4-stage model
Trip Generation
Trip Generation
Trip Distribution
Modal Split
Modal Split
Trip Distribution
Trip Assignment
Trip Assignment
Trip Interchange
Model
Trip-end model
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
32
Trip Generation
Tries to answer questions like:
How many trips will be generated from zone x (from a
residential area)?
How many trips will be attracted to zone y (to a shopping
complex)?
Rates of trip making is closely related to
Intensity of land use (dwelling unit/sq.km, employees/sq.km,
etc.)
Character of land use (income , car ownership, etc.)
Location relative to major economic activity
Methodologies Used:
Trip rates from national/ local sources
Category (cross-classification) Analysis
Regression Analysis
etc.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
33
Trip Generation (Contd.)
Trip rates from National/ local sources
Rates established by studies conducted
to determine the number of trips
associated with different types of landuse.
Example :
Traffic counts at the driveways, stores or
restaurants to account attracted traffic
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
34
Trip Generation (Contd.)
Cross-Classification Analysis
is a method by which the relationship
between socio-economic variables and
trip making is used to develop trip rates
by cross classification or categorization.
Some thought should be given to:
What dimensions to cross-classify (no of
cars owned OR No. of HH members)
What groupings of these levels (0,1,2+ OR
0,1,2,3+)
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
35
Example 1
Suppose a survey finds the data on weekly trip making as
given in (2) and the distribution of HH car ownership as is
tabulated in (3). In (4) the avg. number of trips per HH is
calculated to be 43.
If the distribution of HH with a certain no. of cars changes as
shown in (5), category analysis holds (2) constant and
(1)
(2)
(4) hold.
(5)
(6)
calculates
new average
trips (3)
per house
Number of Weekly Number
cars owned of trips made by
by HH
HH
Initial
Distributi
on of HH
(2)*(3)
New
Distribution
of HH
(2)*(5)
30
50%
15
30%
50
40%
20
50%
25
2+
80
10%
20%
16
43
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
50
36
Example 2
0
HH
Size
1
2
3+
HH
1
Trips
HH
2+
Trips
HH
Trips
1200 2520 2560 6144 54
130
874 2098 3456 9676 5921 2916
5
421 1137 2589 8026 8642 3370
4
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
37
Example 2 (Contd.)
HH
1
2
3+
0
2.1
2.4
2.7
Auto ownership
1
2.4
2.8
3.1
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
2+
2.4
3.4
3.9
38
Example 2 (Contd.)
0
2+
HH
Size
HH
Trips
HH
Trips
HH
Trips
25
52
125
300
32
77
175
490
254
864
3+
10
27
39
276
512
2001
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
39
Trip Generation (Contd.)
Regression Analysis: the procedure for
establishing an equation to express the relationship
between one (dependant) variable and one or more
other (explanatory) variables.
Y 1 X 1 ... n X n
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
40
Example
Let:
Ti = number of trips in a month, by zone i
Dj =no. of trips attracted to zone j
Pi = population for zone i
Ui = dwelling units in zone i
A = no. of automobiles in zone i
Ei = total employment in zone i
Ti 0.34 Pi 0.21U i 0.12 A
D j 57.2 0.87 Ei
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
41
So far
Generation
Categor
y
analysis
Regression
Analysis
Trip rates
Other
methods
Predictions of Origins,
Destinations, or Both for zones
in the study area
Trip Distribution
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
42
Trip Distribution
What total number of trips would there be between
Origin and Destination Pairs?
The result of trip distribution is an O-D matrix that
shows the number of trips originating in the study
zone and where these trips are destined to.
Methods
Gravity Model
Growth Factor Models
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
43
Gravity Model
Named due to similarity with
Newtons law of gravitation:
Tij
Aj /( Dij ) n
Pi
A1 /( Di1 ) A2 /( Di 2 ) ... Am /( Dim )
n
Modified gravity model
Tij Pi
Aj Fij Kij
Aj Fij Kij
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
44
Growth Factor Method
Simple and easy to
understand/explain
Rely very heavily on patterns in the
old O-D matrix so not suitable for
very long term planning
Take no account of changing costs,
policies, etc.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
45
Growth Factor Method
The Fratar method
Tij tiG j
tijG j
tG
ix
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
46
Example
Present trip generation and growth factors in 5 years
Zone
present No. of trips/day
in 5 years
1
2
3
4
600
700
700
400
growth factor
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.3
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
No. of trips
720
770
980
520
47
Example (contd.)
Present trips between zones
zone
400
100
100
400
300
100
300
300
100
300
Total
600
700
700
400
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
48
Example (contd.)
First estimate of trips b/n
zones
zone
1
2
3
4
1
428
141 372
124
Total
428 141 124
-
Calculated
trips
Actual
trips
693
720
372
800
770
430
943
980
430
554
520
693 800 943 554
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
49
Mode Split
A model to predict the percentage of
individuals who will choose one mode
over others for making a particular trip
Mode choice is affected by:
Type of trip [trip purpose (work, leisure);
time of day;
Characteristics of the trip maker (income,
age, car-ownership)
Characteristics of the mode (relative travel
time, reliability, comfort, price, )
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
50
Mode Split
Mode utilities are attributable:
to the user (time, price, ),
to the service characteristics of a mode (reliability,
safety, comfort),
others
The Utility of a mode is the satisfaction a user
derives from using a certain mode of transport.
It is a linear combination of cost attributes a
transport mode presents to its user
e.g. U = TT - Price +Comfort
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
51
Mode Split
The Logit Model
Pit
Uit
Ujt
All j
Pit = probability of individual t choosing mode i
Uit = Utility of mode i to individual t
Ujt = Utility of mode j to individual t
Note that the method is based on one individuals Utility from
the different modes.
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
52
Example
Assume there are 1000 trips being made between
zones A and B, and that there are three mode
available to make this trip. The utility of the
individual modes is defined as
Uauto=1 0.1TT 0.05 TC
Ubus =-0.1TT 0.05 TC
Uwalk=-0.05 0.01 TT
TC=Travel Cost (birr) and TT=Travel Time (min)
Predict how many people would be using each of the
modes if: TTauto=5min, TTbus=15min, TTwalk= 20min,
TCauto=2birr, and TCbus=1birr .
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
53
Trip Assignment
Allocates the Tijk matrix to links (routes) in
the network (i=Origin, j=Destination,
k=mode)
Inputs in Assignment Models
the Tijk Matrix
the Network
with the cost of using each link defined (e.g. in terms of
travel time)
Route Selection Rules
Most rules are based on the idea that a traveller will
choose the route which is expected to offer the lowest
perceived cost
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
54
Trip Assignment
Outputs
Flows on links
Zone to zone travel costs for a given level of
demand
Composition of traffic on a link or route
All alternative routes for a particular O-D pair
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
55
Trip Assignment
Models
Diversion curve
All or Nothing Assignment (minimum
time path)
Capacity restraint method
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
56
AON - example
b=8 birr
O1
a=1birr
O2
c=4birr
Note the costs are not related to flow on the links
and capacity of the link.
If the Demand is: O1-D=2500 trips and O2-D=3500
trips, how much traffic will be using links a, b, and
c?
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
57
General Example
Road Financing Options for Addis to Nazareth
Road Project Feasibility of Road Tolls
Addis to Nazareth: Buses, Rapid Transit, Roads
%
Heavy
Growth
1992-2004
19061
40%
19%
Akaki Beseka Debrezeit
7860
52%
10%
Debrezeit - Mojo
5797
51%
8%
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
Mojo - Nazareth
4002
51%
7%
Section
Addis Akaki Beseka
2004
ADT
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
58
Evaluation of Transport
Alternatives
Intro.
A certain transport project is usually proposed
in order to achieve some stated objectives
Different project will have different impact on
the different
The evaluation procedure should as much as
possible be objective! Values are given to
different attributes that are affected by a
transportation system improvement (e.g.
travel time, safety, ). For some attributes for
which finding a value is difficult other methods
(e.g. Multi-Criteria Analysis) have been used.
A Social projects evaluation is different from a
private projects
evaluation
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
60
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
Cost-Benefit Analysis
In CBA it is assumed that
All costs and benefits can be expressed
in money terms (but, multi-criteria
analysis)
Future costs and benefits are known with
certainty (but, risk analysis)
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
61
Example CBA
A project is socially beneficial if the gainers
could compensate the losers and still be
better off them selves
Crudely put, if B (Benefit) > C (Cost)
e.g. If a bus company hires extra drivers to
improve reliability and the costs and
benefits are as shown: is the proposal
worth
going for?Costs (birr)
Group
Benefits (birr)
Operator
10000
Users
Total
13000
10000
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
13000
62
Future Costs - Benefits
How do we summarize future benefits
and costs to a single value?
How are future benefits worth, viewed
from today?
Opportunity Cost and Time preference
1Birr spent on Project A today could instead
be invested elsewhere to generate a return
of r%. (Banks lending interest ratedetermined by Govt.).
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
63
Summarizing Techniques
Methods discussed here include:
Net Present Value, NPV
Internal Rate of Return, IRR
Benefit Cost Ratio, BCR
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
64
Net present value
NPV PVB PVC
B1 C1
Bn Cn
NPV Bo Co
...
(1 r )
(1 r ) n
Bn Cn
n
(
1
r
)
t 0
n
Where:
Bt=benefit in year t
Ct=cost in year t
(1+r)-n =discount rate
n=horizon year (any thing beyond will be
considered
residual value)
only in the form of
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
65
Internal Rate of Return
Is the rate of discount at the projects NPV is
zero.
Found by a search procedure
Example: What is the IRR for the
Year
project shown?
Net
Benefit
-50000
25600
Ans: IRR=25%
(Check if it given a 0 NPV) 2
3
25600
25600
When comparing two projects would you go for the
one with a bigger or lesser IRR?
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
66
Benefit Cost Ratio
Is a value for money measure
" gross" BCR PVB / PVC
" net" BCR ( PVB PVC ) / PVC
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
67
Example
Calculate NPV, BCR, and IRR for the following stream
of benefits and costs if the discount rate is 7%
Yr Costs
Benefit
s
Discount
Factors
(7%)
20000
Discounte Discounte Discounted
d Costs
d Benefits net
benefits
8000
8000
8000
8000
8000
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
68
Example
A heavily used intersection in an urban area is to be improved to
achieve three goals: improve travel speed, safety, reduce
operating costs for motorists. The annual value of savings
compared with existing conditions for each criterion as well as
additional construction and maintenance costs is shown below.
If the economic life of the road is considered to be 50 years and
the discount rate is 3%, which alternative should be selected?
Cost & Benefits for improving the intersection with respect to the existing conditions
Alt
Construction
Cost (Br)
Annual Saving in Annual TT
Accidents (Br)
savings (Br)
Annual Op. Cost
savings (Br)
Annual additonal
Maintenance Cost (Br)
185,000
5000
3000
500
1500
220,000
5000
6500
500
2500
310,000
7000
6000
2800
3000
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
69
Reference
Brundtland G. et. al. (1987).
Our
common future: Report of the 1987 World
Commission on Environment and Development,
Oxford, Oxford University Press
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.),
gberhanu@ceng.aau.edu.et
70
