Introduction to Sensors

And types of Sensors

Sensors?
American National Standards Institute
A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified
measurand

A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a

signal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical,
mechanical)
Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical
phenomena into an electrical signal
Active element of a sensor is called a transducer

Transducer?
A device which converts one form of energy to another
When input is a physical quantity and output electrical Sensor
When input is electrical and output a physical quantity Actuator

e.g. Piezoelectric:
Sensors
Physical
parameter

Actuators
Electrical
Input

Force -> voltage

Voltage-> Force

=> Ultrasound!
Electrical
Output

Physical
Output

Microphone, Loud Speaker

Commonly Detectable Phenomena

Biological
Chemical
Electric
Electromagnetic
Heat/Temperature
Magnetic
Mechanical motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.)
Optical
Radioactivity

Common Conversion Methods

Physical
thermo-electric, thermo-elastic, thermo-magnetic, thermo-optic
photo-electric, photo-elastic, photo-magnetic,
electro-elastic, electro-magnetic
magneto-electric
Chemical
chemical transport, physical transformation, electro-chemical
Biological
biological transformation, physical transformation

Commonly Measured Quantities

Stimulus
Acoustic
Biological & Chemical

Electric

Magnetic

Quantity
Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave
Velocity
Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)

Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude, phase,

polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity

Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,

Permeability

Optical

Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption

Thermal

Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity

Mechanical

Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,

Pressure, Torque

Physical Principles: Examples

Amperess Law
A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force (e.g.
galvanometer)

Curie-Weiss Law
There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic materials exhibit
paramagnetic behavior

Faradays Law of Induction

A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an opposing
voltage/current (e.g. transformer)

Photoconductive Effect
When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the resistance of the
material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)

Choosing a Sensor

Need for Sensors

Sensors are pervasive. They are
embedded in our bodies, automobiles,
airplanes, cellular telephones, radios,
chemical plants, industrial plants and
countless other applications.
Without the use of sensors, there would be
no automation !!
Imagine having to manually fill Poland Spring
bottles

Motion Sensors
Monitor location of various parts in a system

absolute/relative position
angular/relative displacement
proximity
acceleration

Principle of operation
Magnetic, resistive, capacitance, inductive, eddy current, etc.

Potentiometer
Primary

Secondary

Optoisolator
LVDT Displacement Sensor

Strain Gauge: Motion, Stress,

Pressure

Strain gauge is used to measure deflection, stress, pressure, etc.

The resistance of the sensing element changes with applied strain
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure small changes in the strain gauge resistance

Temperature Sensor: Bimetallic Strip

Bimetallic Strip
L= L 0 [ 1+ ( T-T 0 )]

Application
Thermostat (makes
or breaks electrical
connection with
deflection)

Temperature Sensor: RTD

Resistance temperature
device (RTD)
R=R 0 [1+ ( T-T 0 )]

[
]
R=R e

1 1

T T0

Light Sensor
Light sensors are used in
cameras, infrared detectors,
and ambient lighting
applications
Sensor is composed of
photoconductor such as a
photoresistor, photodiode, or
phototransistor

Photoresistors

Light sensitive variable resistors.

Its resistance depends on the intensity of light incident upon it.
Under dark condition, resistance is quite high (M: called dark resistance).
Under bright condition, resistance is lowered (few hundred ).
Response time:
When a photoresistor is exposed to light, it takes a few milliseconds, before it
lowers its resistance.
When a photoresistor experiences removal of light, it may take a few seconds
to return to its dark resistance.
Photoresisotrs exhibit a nonlinear characteristics for incident optical illumination
versus the resulting resistance.

log10 R log10 P

104
R

103
102
101
101 102 103 104
Relative illumination (P)

Symbol

Magnetic Field Sensor

Magnetic Field sensors
are used for power
steering, security, and
current measurements
on transmission lines
Hall voltage is
proportional to magnetic
field
IB
V H=
nqt

Ultrasonic Sensor
Ultrasonic sensors are
used for position
measurements
Sound waves emitted
are in the range of 2-13
MHz
Sound Navigation And
Ranging (SONAR)
Radio Dection And
Ranging (RADAR)
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES !!

Photogate
Photogates are used in
counting applications (e.g.
finding period of period
motion)
Infrared transmitter and
receiver at opposite ends
of the sensor
Time at which light is
broken is recorded

POSITION SENSOR

Position Sensor
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Magnetostrictive Linear Position Sensor
Eddy Current Sensor
Fiber-Optic Position Sensor

LDVT-Configuration
An alternating
current is driven
through the primary,
causing a voltage to
be induced in each
secondary
proportional to its
mutual inductance
with the primary.
The frequency is
usually in the range
1 to 10 kHz.

LDVT-Operation

LVDT-Operation

LDVT-Circuit

LDVT-Parameter
Range: 0.01-24 in.
Noncontact
Nonlinearity: 0.10%-0.25%
Resolution: 1uin.
Cost: medium
Lifetime: high

Magnetostrictive Linear Position

Sensors
Magnetostriction is a property of
ferromagnetic materials such as iron,
nickel, and cobalt. When placed in a
magnetic field, these materials change
size and/or shape
the reverse is also true: applying stress
to a magnetostrictive material changes
its magnetic properties (e.g., magnetic
permeability). This is called the Villari
effect.
Normal magnetostriction and the Villari
effect are both used in producing a
magnetostrictive position sensor.

Wiedemann effect
When an axial magnetic field is
applied to a magnetostrictive wire,
and a current is passed through
the wire, a twisting occurs at the
location of the axial magnetic field.
Since the current is applied as a
pulse, the mechanical twisting
travels in the wire as an ultrasonic
wave. The wave travels at the speed
of sound in the waveguide material,
~ 3O00 m/s.

Magnetostriction-Parameter
Range: 0.5-90 in.
Noncontact
Nonlinearity: 0.02%
Resolution: 80 uin.
Cost: high
Lifetime: high

Magnetostriction-Parameter
Range: 0.5-90 in.
Noncontact
Nonlinearity: 0.02%
Resolution: 80 uin.
Cost: high
Lifetime: high

Eddy Current Sensor

Eddy current: caused when a
conductor is exposed to a
changing magnetic field due to
relative motion of the field source
and conductor; or due to
variations of the field with time.
The eddy current generates a
opposite magnet field, which
superimposes with the exciting
magnet field. As consequence,
the impedance Z of the sensor
coil changes.

Eddy Current Sensor-Configuration

An eddy current
sensor consists of
four components:
the sensor coil, the
target, the sensor
drive electronics,
and a signal
processing block.

For a defined measuring

target the change of coil
impedance is a function
of the distance a.
Therefore, the distance
can be derived by
measuring impedance
change.

Eddy current
sensors work most
efficently at highoscillation
frequencies nearby
their resonance
frequencies. The
resonance
frequency of an
eddy current sensor
depends on the

Fiber-Optic position sensor

immunity to EMI and an inability to create
sparks in a potentially explosive environment.
Noncontact.
suitable for measurement ranges varying from
centimeters to many meters and for which
extremely high resolution is not needed.

Fiber-Optic sensor

 Fluorescence followed by absorption is at the

heart of this sensor.
The logarithm of the ratio of the two signals
S1 and S2 is linear in x and independent of the
strength of the pump source.

Although insensitivity to pump strength or coupling of pump light to

the fluorescent fiber is a distinct advantage of this sensor, signal-tonoise problems will arise if the individual signals S1 and S2 are too low.

Fiber-Optic sensor-Experiment

Level Sensors

Level Measurement
Level is another common process variable that is measured in many
industries. The method used will vary widely depending on the nature
of the industry, the process, and the application.

Inventory:
-- a constant supply or storage of material
Control:
-- continuous, batch, blending, and mixing control
-- stabilize flow to the next process
Alarming:
-- hi/lo limits, safety shut down
Data Logging:
-- material quantities for inventory and billing purposes and
where regulatory requirements are necessary

What is measured?

The measured medium can be liquid, gas or solid and stored

in vessels (open/closed tanks), silos, bins and hoppers.
Units of level can be expressed in:
feet (meters)
gallons (liters)
pounds (kilograms)
cubic volume (ft3, m3)

Methods ---- Direct or Indirect (inferential)

Hydrostatic Head
Float
Load Cells
Magnetic Level Gauge
Capacitance
Transmitters
Magnetostrictive
Ultrasonic
Microwave
Laser
Radar
Guided Wave Radar
Dip Stick
Vibration

Direct Methods

Direct methods sense the surface or interface of the

liquid and is not affected by changes in material
density (Specific Gravity)
Examples:

Dip Stick
Resistance Tapes
Sight Glass
Floats
Ultrasonic

Indirect Methods (Inferential)

Indirect methods infer liquid level by measuring some other

physical parameter such as pressure, weight, or temperature.
Changing materials means a corrective factor must be used or
recalibrating the instrument.
Examples:
Hydrostatic head methods
Load Cells
Capacitance
Conductivity

Selection Criteria

When determining the type of level sensor that should be used for
a given application, there are a series of questions that must
be answered:
Open tank or closed tank?
Can the level sensor be inserted into the tank or should it be
completely external? Contact or non-contact?
Continuous measurement or point measurement?
Direct or Indirect measurement?
What type of material is being measured? Liquid or Solid?
Clean or Slurry?

Selection Criteria

For all liquids you will need:

The system operating temperature with max. and min.
excursions?
two wide range expensive the sensor
The system operating pressure?
Check that system T and P do not conflict with the
materials of construction?

Selection Criteria

For Solids:
Bulk density
Be careful with very large silos as compaction at the bottom
can greatly change assume bulk densities
Flow characteristics?

Expected particle size distribution?

Is solid abrasive and/or corrosive and what is the
moisture/solvent content?

For Liquids
Dip Stick

Simple and cheap

Can be used with any wet
material and not affected by
density.
Can not be used with pressurized
tanks
Visual indication only (electronic
versions are available)
RodGauge - similar to a dipstick found in a car, it has weighted line markings to
indicate depth or volume

For Liquids
Sight Glass

Another simple direct

method of measuring
liquids.
Can be used in
pressurized tanks (as
long as the glass or
plastic tube can
handle the pressure)

Good for applications where non-contact measurement is

needed (like beverages)

For Liquids
Floats

Float rides the surface level to provide the measurement. Many

different styles are available. Usually used for pump control,
high/low level alarms and emergency shut-off

Liquid density does not affect measurement

For Liquids
Conductivity Level Measurement

Point Level
Measurement

Continuous Level
Measurement

Advantages and disadvantages

Low Cost
Conductive, non-coating liquids only
Insulating coatings can cause problems

For Liquids
Resistance Tape

The pressure of the fluid in the tank causes the tape to shortcircuit, thus changing the total resistance of the measuring
tape. An electronic circuit measures the resistance; it's
directly related to the liquid level in the tank.

For Liquids
Bubblers

Bubblers allow the

indicator to be
located anywhere.
The air pressure in the
tube varies with the
head pressure of the
height of the liquid.

Instrument
input does
not matter
Regulated
purge
system
(air or
nitrogen)

Bottom of
tube
determines
reference
Cant be used in closed tanks or where purging a liquid is not allowed (soap). Very popular
in the paper
point
industry because the air purge keeps the tube from plugging.

For Liquids
Bubblers

Advantages:
-- Easy installation
-- Continuous reading providing
analogue or digital signal
-- No moving parts
-- Good accuracy and
repeatability

Instrument
input does
not matter
Regulated
purge
system
(air or
nitrogen)
Bottom of
tube
determines
reference
point

For Liquids
Bubblers

Limitations:
-- Not suitable for pressurized
tanks

-- Sediments may block tube or

probe

-- Tanks must be freely vented

Instrument
input does
not matter
Regulated
purge
system
(air or
nitrogen)
Bottom of
tube
determines
reference
point

Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors

These methods infer level by measuring the

hydrostatic head produced by the liquid column.
A pressure sensing element is installed at the
bottom of the tank and pressure is converted to
level.
Different liquid densities or closed tank
applications must be accounted for.

Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors

General Theory for Head

Measurement

Height (H)

Liquid
Density
(D)

The Pressure exerted by the

Height of the liquid is:
P = H x Density*
Pressu If the Density of the liquid is
re
known then
H = Pressure
Density*
PSI

*Note: For liquids other than water, use the density of water
0.0361 lb/in3 as a reference and multiply by the SG of the

Example
A dip stick measurement of the level of these 2 tanks
indicates 30 feet of liquid in both tanks. Calculate the
pressure that each gauge will read if tank 1 contains water
(S.G. = 1) and tank 2 contains oil (S.G. = 0.85)
Oil
Water
Height
Height
(H)
(H)
Densit
Densit
y (D)
y (D)
Tan
Tan
k2
k1
PSI

PSI

P = H x Density
= 30 ft x 0.0361 lbs/in3
= (30 x 12) x 0.0361
= 13 psi

P = ? psi

UltraSonic Level Measurement

Non-Contact direct level sensor

Level is a function of the time it
takes an ultrasonic pulse to hit the
surface and return

Limitations include:
Surface foam absorbs signal, agitation create reflections
High Pressure & High Temperatures affect the signal speed
Vapour and condensate create false echos

UltraSonic Level Measurement

Non-Contact direct level sensor

Level is a function of the time it
takes an ultrasonic pulse to hit the
surface and return

Limitations include:
Surface foam absorbs signal, agitation create reflections
High Pressure & High Temperatures affect the signal speed
Vapour and condensate create false echos

Radar Level Sensors (Microwave)

Similar to ultrasonic but at a much higher frequency (6.3 GHz)

Various designs
-- Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave
-- Pulsed Wave
-- Guided Wave

These sensors have better performance in applications where vapour, dust or uneven surfaces exist.

Summary

Level is measured by locating the boundary

between two media, called the interface
Level can be measured directly or indirectly
Noninvasive devices are preferred when the
material is corrosive, hazardous, sterile, or at
a high temperature or pressure

Pressure Sensors

Pressure Measurement

1.

Pressure = Force / Area

1.

Pressure can be used inferentially to measure other

variables such as Flow and Level

1.

Pressure plays a major role in determining the

Boiling Point of Liquids

1.

Fluids exerts pressure on the containing vessel

equally and in all directions

Pressure Measurement
Pressure is commonly quoted as being Absolute or Gauge

Easiest way of thinking

Some Fluid = Some Pressure = Some absolute pressure
No Fluid = No Pressure = Zero absolute pressure

Whereas
Fluid Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure = Some Gauge Pressure
No Fluid + Atmospheric Pressure = Zero Gauge Pressure
Which follows
Gauge Pressure Atmospheric Pressure = Pressure due to fluid itself = Absolute fluid
pressure

Pressure Measurement

Pressure Measurement Methods

1.

Mechanical Methods

1.

Electrical Methods

Pressure Measurement Methods

1.

Elastic pressure transducers

1.

Manometer method

1.

Pressure measurement by measuring vacuum

1.

Electric pressure transducers

1.

Pressure measurement by balancing forces produced on a

known area by a measured force

Elastic Pressure Transducers

1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge

1. Diaphragm pressure transducers
1. Bellows
Uses flexible element as sensor. As pressure changed
,the flexible element moved, and this motion was
used to rotate a pointer in front of dail.

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Bourdon tubes are generally are of

three types;
1. C-type
2. Helical type
3. Spiral type

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Diaphragm and Bellows Pressure Gauge

Diaphragm are popular because they required less space

and the motion they produce is sufficient for operating
electronic transducers

Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

They are used to measure gauge pressures over very low ranges.
Two types of diaphragm pressure gauges are:
1.

Metallic diaphragms gauge

(brass or bronze)
2. Slack diaphragms gauge (Rubber)

Electric Pressure Transducers

Why Electrical Pressure

Transducers?
Transmission requirements for remote display as
electric signal transmission can be through cable or
cordless.
Electric signals give quicker responses and high
accuracy in digital measurements.
The linearity property of the electric signal produced
to pressure applied favors simplicity.
They can be used for extreme pressure applications,
i.e. high vacuum and pressure measurements.
EPTs are immune to hysteresis, shock and mechanical
vibrations.

Electric Pressure Transducers

1. Pressure sensing element such as a bellow , a diaphragm or a bourdon tube

1. Primary conversion element e.g. resistance or voltage
1. Secondary conversion element

Types of Electric Pressure Transducers

Strain gauge pressure transducers

Capacitive pressure transducers
Potentiometer pressure transducers
Resonant Wire pressure transducers
Piezeoelectric pressure transducers

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

A strain gauge is a passive type resistance pressure transducer whose electrical
resistance changes when it is stretched or compressed

The wire filament is attached to a structure under strain and the resistance in
the strained wire is measured

Strain Gauge Pressure Transducer

A strain gauge is a passive type resistance pressure transducer whose electrical
resistance changes when it is stretched or compressed

The wire filament is attached to a structure under strain and the resistance in
the strained wire is measured

Capacitive Pressure Transducer

C=0 r A/d
Where,
C = the capacitance of a capacitor in farad
A = area of each plate in m2
d = distance between two plates in m
r= dielectric constant
0 = 8.854*10^-12 farad/m2
Thus, capacitance can be varied by changing distance
between the plates, area of the plate or value of the
dielectric medium between the plates. Any change in
these factors cause change in capacitance.
In capacitive transducers, pressure is utilized to vary any of the above mentioned
factors which will cause change in capacitance and that is a measureable by any
suitable electric bridge circuit and is proportional to the pressure.

Capacitive Pressure Transducer

-- Originally developed for use in low vacuum research

-- Wide rangeability from high vacuum in the micron range to 10,000 psig
-- Differential pressure as low as 0.01 inch can be readable
-- Accurate within 0.1 % of reading or 0.01 % of full scale
-- More Corrosion resistant

Potentiometer Pressure Transducer

--

Extremely small and installed in very tight quarters

housing of 4.5 in dial pressure gauge
-- Provide strong output so no need of additional amplifier
-- Range 5 to 10,000 psig
-- Accurate within 0.5 % and 1 % of full scale

such inside the

Resonant Wire Pressure Transducer

Resonant Wire Pressure Transducer

-- Used for low differential pressure applications
-- Generates inherently digital signal
-- Sensitive to shock and variation
-- Range :
From
Absolute pressure
Up to Differential pressure
or Gauge pressure
-- Accuracy 0.1 % of Calibrated Spam

10 mm Hg
750 in Water
6000 psig

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

-- Signals generated by crystals decays rapidly so unsuitable for static force

or pressure measurements
-- measure rapidly changing pressure resulting from blasts, explosions or
pulsation pressures
-- Range : 5,000 to 10,000 psir
-- Rugged construction, small size and high speed

Where and How have EPTs failed?

EPTs require a constant supply of electricity for them to
function. They do not come with built-in power supply.
High performance comes at a cost. Installation of auxiliary
display modules and electrical circuitry increases capital cost.
Physical properties, like temperature, which can affect electrical
constants may affect the consistency of EPTs.
For this reason, temperature compensation is always required
with EPTs.
Some electrical phenomena, like piezolectric energy, have
limited applicability. This limits their use in industry.
Electricity exposes personnel to potential hazards.

Home Work

INDUCTIVE/RELUCTIVE PRESSURE
TRANSDUCERS

High Pressure and Vacuum Measurement

High pressure designs

-- Can detect pressure up to
10,000 psig and operate up to
8000 degree F
-- The pressure of the output air
signal follows the process
pressure in inverse ratio to the
areas of the two diaphragms.
If the diaphragm area ratio is
200:1, a 1,000-psig increase in
process pressure will raise the air
output signal by 5 psig.

High Pressure and Vacuum Measurement

High pressure designs
-- May include as many as
twenty coils
-- can measure pressures well
in excess of 10,000 psig
-- standard element material
is heavy-duty stainless steel
-- measurement error is around
1% of span
-- Suitable for fluctuating
pressure service

High Pressure and Vacuum Measurement

Very High pressure
The bulk modulus cell consists of a hollow cylindrical steel probe closed at the inner end with a projecting
stem on the outer end . When exposed to a process pressure, the probe is compressed, the probe tip is
moved to the right by the isotropic contraction, and the stem moves further outward. This stem motion is
then converted into a pressure reading.

detect pressures up to 200,000

psig with 1% to 2% full span
error

High Pressure and Vacuum Measurement

High Pressure and Vacuum Measurement

-- A basic manometer can consist of a reservoir filled with a
liquid and a vertical tube .
-When detecting vacuums, the top of the column is sealed evacuated.
-- A manometer without a reservoir is simply a U-shaped tube, with
one leg sealed and evacuated and the other connected to the
unknown process pressure
-- The difference in the two column heights indicates the process vacuum.
-- An inclined manometer can consist of a well and transparent
tube mounted at an angle. A small change in vacuum pressure will
cause a relatively large movement of the liquid.
--Manometers are simple, low cost, and can detect vacuums
down to 1 millitorr.

High Pressure and Vacuum Measurement

A capacitance sensor operates by measuring the

change in electrical capacitance that results from the
movement of a sensing diaphragm
relative to some fixed capacitance electrodes

Accuracy is typically 0.25 to 0.5% of reading. Thin diaphragms can measure down to 10-5 torr, while
thicker diaphragms can measure in the low vacuum to atmospheric range.

Force, Torque and Tactile

Sensors

Sensor Types
A. Based on power requirement:
1. Active: require external power, called
excitation signal, for the operation
2. Passive: directly generate electrical signal in
response to the external stimulus
B. Based on sensor placement:
1. Contact sensors
2. Non-contact sensors

Force Sensors

The fundamental operating principles of force,

acceleration, and torque instrumentation are closely
allied to the piezoelectric and strain gage devices
used to measure static and dynamic pressures.

Force sensors contd

Piezoelectric sensor produces a voltage when it is

"squeezed" by a force that is proportional to the
force applied.

Difference between these devices and static force

detection devices such as strain gages is that the
electrical signal generated by the crystal decays
rapidly after the application of force.

The high impedance electrical signal generated by

the piezoelectric crystal is converted to a low
impedance signal suitable for such an instrument as
a digital storage oscilloscope.

Force sensors Contd...

Depending on the application requirements,

dynamic force can be measured as either
compression, tensile, or torque force.

Applications may include the measurement of

spring or sliding friction forces, chain tensions,
clutch release forces.

Torque Sensors

Torque is measured by either sensing the actual

shaft deflection caused by a twisting force, or by
detecting the effects of this deflection.

The surface of a shaft under torque will experience

compression and tension, as shown in Figure.

Torque sensor Contd...

To measure torque, strain gage elements usually are

mounted in pairs on the shaft, one gauge measuring
the increase in length (in the direction in which the
surface is under tension), the other measuring the
decrease in length in the other direction.

Force/Torque Measurement

Force and torque measurement finds application in

many practical and experimental studies as well as
in control applications.

Force-motion causality. When measuring force, it

can be critical to understand whether force is the
input or output to the sensor.

Design of a force sensors relies on deflection, so

measurement of motion or displacement can be
used to measure force, and in this way the two are
intimately related.

Design of a Force Sensor

Consider a simple sensor that is to be developed to

measure a reaction force at the base of a spring, as
shown below.

Sensor Mechanisms for Force

In the force sensor design given, no specific
sensing mechanism was implied. The constraint
placed on the stiffness exists for any type of force
sensor.
It is clear, however, that the force sensor will have
to respond to a force and provide an output
voltage. This can be done in different ways.

Sensing Mechanisms

To measure force, it is usually necessary to design a

mechanical structure that determines the stiffness. This
structure may itself be a sensing material.

Force will induce stress, leading to strain which can be

detected, most commonly, by
strain gages (via piezoresistive effect)
some crystals or ceramics (via piezoelectric effect)

Force can also be detected using a displacement

sensor, such as an LVDT.

Strain-gage Force Sensor Design

Lets consider now the force sensor studied earlier,

and consider a design that will use one strain gage
on an axially loaded material.

Strain guages

Many types of force\torque sensors are based on strain

gage measurements.

The measurements can be directly related to stress and

force and may be used to measure other types of
variables including displacement and acceleration

Whats a strain gauge?

The electrical resistance of a length of wire varies in

direct proportion to the change in any strain applied to
it. Thats the principle upon which the strain gauge
works.

The most accurate way to measure this change in

resistance is by using the wheatstone bridge.

The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in

a wide choice of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of
applications.

They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is

mounted on a backing material.

Strain gauge contd..

They operate on the principle that as the foil is

subjected to stress, the resistance of the foil
changes in a defined way.

Strain gauge Configuration

The strain gauge is

connected into a wheatstone
Bridge circuit with a
combination of four active
gauges(full bridge),two
guages (half bridge) or,less
commonly, a single gauge
(quarter bridge).

Guage factor

A fundamental parameter of the strain guage is its

sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively as the
guage factor (GF).

Guage factor is defined as the ratio of fractional

change in electrical resistance to the fractional change
in length (strain).

Strain guage contd..

The complete wheatstone brigde is excited with a

stabilized DC supply.

As stress is applied to the bonded strain guage, a

resistive change takes place and unbalances the
wheatstone bridge which results in signal output with
respect to stress value.

As the signal value is small the signal conditioning

electronics provides amplification to increase the
signal.

Torque Sensor

Torque is a measure of the forces that causes an

object to rotate.

Reaction torque sensors measure static and dynamic

torque with a stationary or non-rotating transducer.

Rotary torque sensors use rotary transducers to

measure torque.

Technology

Magnetoelastic : A magnetoelastic torque sensor

detects changes in permeability by measuring changes
in its own magnetic field.

Piezoelectric : A piezoelectric material is compressed

and generates a charge, which is measured by a charge
amplifier.

Strain guage : To measure torque,strain guage

elements usually are mounted in pairs on the shaft,one
guage measuring the increase in length the other
measuring the decrease in the other direction.

Figures showing Torque sensors

Torque Measurement

The need for torque measurements has led to

several methods of acquiring reliable data from
objects moving. A torque sensor, or transducer,
converts torque into an electrical signal.

The most common transducer is a strain guage that

converts torque into a change in electrical
resistance.

The strain guage is bonded to a beam or structural

member that deforms when a torque or force is
applied.

Torque measurement contd..

Deflection induces a stress that changes its resistance.

A wheatstone bridge converts the resistance change
into a calibrated output signal.

The design of a reaction torque cell seeks to eliminate side

loading (bending) and axial loading, and is sensitive only to
torque loading.

The sensors output is a function of force and distance, and is

usually expressed in inch-pounds, foot-pounds or Newtonmeters.

Contact/Non-contact methods

Contact: slip rings are used in contact-type torque

sensors to apply power to and retrive the signal from
strain gages mounted on the rotating shaft.

Non-contact: the rotary transformer couples the strain

gages for power and signal return. The rotary
transformer works on the same principle as any
conventional transformer except either the primary or
secondary coils rotate.

Applications of force/torque sensors

In robotic tactile and manufacturing applications

In control systems when motion feedback is employed.

In process testing, monitoring and diagnostics

applications.

In measurement of power transmitted through a

rotating device.

In controlling complex non-linear mechanical systems.

Tactile sensors
Introduction

Tactile and touch sensor are devices which

measures the parameters of a contact between the
sensor and an object.

Def: This is the detection and measurement of the

spatial distribution of forces perpendicular to a
predetermined sensory area, and the subsequent
interpretation of the spatial information.

used to sense a diverse range of stimulus ranging

from detecting the presence or absence of a grasped
object to a complete tactile image.

Tactile sensors Contd...

A tactile sensor consists of an array of touch sensitive

sites, the sites may be capable of measuring more than
one property.

The contact forces measured by a sensor are able to

convey a large amount of information about the state of
a grip.

Texture, slip, impact and other contact conditions

generate force and position signatures, that can be used
to identify the state of a manipulation.

This information can be determined by examination of

the frequency domain .

Desirable characteristics of a tactile

sensor

A touch sensor should ideally be a single-point

contact, though the sensory area can be any size. In
practice, an area of 1-2 mm2 is considered a
satisfactory.
The sensitivity of the touch sensor is dependent on a
number of variables determined by the sensor's basic
physical characteristic.
A sensitivity within the range 0.4 to 10N, is
considered satisfactory for most industrial
applications.
A minimum sensor bandwidth is of 100 Hz.

Characteristics Contd.

The sensors characteristics must be stable and repeatable

with low hysteresis. A linear response is not absolutely
necessary, as information processing techniques can be
used to compensate for any moderate non-linearities.

As the touch sensor will be used in an industrial

application, it will need to be robust and protected from
environmental damage.

If a tactile array is being considered, the majority of

application can be undertaken by an array 10-20 sensors
square, with a spatial resolution of 1-2 mm.

Tactile sensor technology

Many physical principles have been exploited in

the development of tactile sensors. As the
technologies involved are very diverse, in most
cases, the developments in tactile sensing
technologies are application driven.

Conventional sensors can be modified to operate

with non-rigid materials.

Mechanically based sensors

Resistive based sensors

Force sensing resistor

Contd

Capacitive based sensors

Magnetic based sensor

Optical Sensors

Optical fibre based sensors

Piezoelectric sensors

Strain gauges in tactile sensors

Silicon based sensors

Multi-stimuli Touch Sensors

Mechanically based sensors

The simplest form of touch sensor is one where the

applied force is applied to a conventional mechanical
micro-switch to form a binary touch sensor.

The force required to operate the switch will be

determined by its actuating characteristics and any
external constraints.

Other approaches are based on a mechanical

movement activating a secondary device such as a
potentiometer or displacement transducer.

Resistive based sensors

The majority of industrial analogue touch or tactile

sensors that have been used are based on the principle of
resistive sensing. This is due to the simplicity of their
design and interface to the robotic system.

The use of compliant materials that have a defined forceresistance characteristics have received considerable
attention in touch and tactile sensor research.

The basic principle of this type of sensor is the

measurement of the resistance of a conductive elastomer
or foam between two points.

The majority of the sensors use an elastomer that

consists of a carbon doped rubber.

Contd

In adjacent sensor the

resistance of the
elastomer changes with
the application of force,
resulting from the
deformation of the
elastomer altering the
particle density.

Resistive sensors contd..

If the resistance measurement is taken between opposing

surfaces of the elastomer, the upper contacts have to be
made using a flexible printed circuit to allow movement
under the applied force.

Measurement from one side can easily be achieved by

using a dot-and-ring arrangement on the substrate.

Resistive sensors have also been developed using

elastomer cords laid in a grid pattern, with the resistance
measurements being taken at the points of intersection.

Arrays with 256-elements have been constructed. This

type of sensor easily allows the construction of a tactile
image of good resolution.

Disadvantages of The conductive elastomer or foam

based sensor :

An elastomer has a long nonlinear time constant. In addition the

time constant of the elastomer, when force is applied, is different
from the time constant when the applied force is removed.

The force-resistance characteristic of elastomer based sensors are

highly nonlinear, requiring the use of signal processing
algorithms.

Due to the cyclic application of forces experience by a tactile

sensor, the resistive medium within the elastomer will migrates
over a period of time.

Additionally, the elastomer will become permanently deformed

and fatigue leading to permanent deformation of the sensor. This
will give the sensor a poor long-term stability and will require
replacement after an extended period of use.

Conclusion

From these, we can estimate object properties such as geometry,

stiffness, and surface condition.

This information can then be used to control grasping or

manipulation, to detect slip, and also to create or improve object
models.

Thus Tactile sensors occupy a primary position in the present

industry to increase the efficiency of the mechanical work being
done.

Performance monitoring and evaluation, failure detection,

diagnosis, testing depend heavily on measurement of associated
forces and torques.

These forces and torques present in dynamic systems are generally

functions of time.