Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

PROGRAMME F2
INTRODUCTION
TO
ALGEBRA

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Symbols other than numerals
Constants
Variables
Rules of algebra
Rules of precedence
Terms and coefficients
Collecting like terms
Similar terms
Expanding brackets
Nested brackets

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Symbols other than numerals
An unknown number can be represented by a letter of the alphabet which
can then be manipulated just like an ordinary numeral within an arithmetic
expression. Manipulating letters and numerals within arithmetic expressions
is referred to as algebra.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Constants and variables
Sometimes a letter represents a single number. Such a letter is referred to as
a constant. Other times a letter may represent one of a collection of
numbers. Such a letter is referred to as a variable.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Rules of algebra
The rules of arithmetic, when expressed in general terms using letters of the
alphabet are referred to as the rules of algebra. Amongst these rules are
those that deal with:
Commutativity
Associativity
Distributivity

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Rules of algebra
Commutativity
Both addition and multiplication are commutative operations. That is, they
can be added or multiplied in any order without affecting the result:
x y y x and xy yx
Note that the multiplication sign is suppressed:
x y is written as xy

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Rules of algebra
Associativity
Both addition and multiplication are associative operations. That is, they
can be associated in any order without affecting the result:
x ( y z) ( x y) z x y z
x( yz) ( xy) z xyz

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Rules of algebra
Distributivity
Multiplication is distributive over addition and subtraction from both the
left and the right:
x( y z) xy xz and x( y z) xy xz
( x y) z xz yz and ( x y) z xz yz

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Rules of algebra
Distributivity
Division is distributive over addition and subtraction from the right but not
from the left:
( x y) z x z y z and ( x y) z x z y z
x ( y z) x y x z and x ( y z) x y x z

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Rules of precedence
The familiar rules of precedence continue to apply when algebraic
expressions involving mixed operations are to be manipulated

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Terms and coefficients
An algebraic expression consists of alphabetic characters and numerals
linked together with the arithmetic operations. For example:
8x 3xy
Each component of this expression is called a term of the expression. Here
there are two terms, namely the x term and the xy term.
The numbers 8 and 3 are called the coefficients of their respective terms.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Collecting like terms
Terms that have the same variables are called like terms and like terms can
be collected together by addition and subtraction. In this manner,
expressions can be simplified.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Similar terms
Terms that have variables in common are called similar terms and similar
terms can be collected together by factorization. The symbols the terms
have in common are called common factors. For example:
ab bc b(a c)
Here, b is a common factor that has been factorized out by the introduction
of brackets.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Expanding brackets
Sometimes it is desired to reverse the process of factorizing an expression
by removing the brackets (called expanding the brackets). This is done by:
(a) multiplying or dividing each term inside the bracket by the term outside
the bracket, but
(b) If the term outside the bracket is negative then each term inside the
bracket changes sign

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Nested brackets
In expanding brackets where an algebraic expression contains brackets
nested within other brackets the innermost brackets are removed first.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

18

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Powers
Powers
Rules of indices

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Powers
Powers
The use of powers in the first instance (also called indices or exponents)
provides a convenient form of algebraic shorthand for repetitive
multiplication.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Powers
Rules of indices
Three basic rules are:
1 am an am n
2 am an am n
3 am amn
n

These lead to:

4

a0 1

5 am 1m
a
6

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am m a

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

23

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

24

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Logarithms
Powers
Logarithms
Rules of logarithms
Base 10 and base e
Change of base
Logarithmic equations

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Logarithms
Powers
Any real number can be written as another number written raised to a
power. For example:
9 32 and 27 33
So that:
9 27 32 33 323 35 243
Here the process of multiplication is replaced by the process of relating
numbers to powers and then adding the powers a simpler operation.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Logarithms
Logarithms
If a, b and c are three real numbers where:
a bc and b 1
The power c is called the logarithm of the number a to the base b and is
written:
c logb a spoken as c is the log of a to the base b

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Logarithms
Rules of logarithms
The three basic rules are:
(a) loga xy loga x log a y
(b) log a x y loga x log a y
(c) loga xn nloga x
These lead to:
(d )
(e)
(f)
(g)

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loga a 1
loga a x x
alog x x
loga b1/logb a
a

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Logarithms
Base 10 and base e
On a calculator there are buttons that provide access to logarithms to two
different bases, namely 10 and the exponential number e = 2.71828
Logarithms to base 10 are called common logarithms and are written
without indicating the base as log
Logarithms to base e are called natural logarithms and are written as ln

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Logarithms
Change of base
The change of base formula that relates the logarithms of a number to two
different bases is given as:
logb a loga x logb x

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Logarithms
Logarithmic equations
Logarithmic expressions and equations can be manipulated using the rules
of logarithms. Example:
loga x2 3loga x 2log a 4 x
loga x2 loga x3 loga 4 x

2 3
loga x x2
16 x
3
loga x
16

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

32

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable

Brackets are multiplied out a term at a time. For example:

(2 x 5)( x2 3x 4)
2 x( x2 3x 4) 5( x2 3x 4)
2 x3 6 x2 8x 5x2 15x 20
2 x3 11x2 23x 20

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

35

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Fractions
Algebraic fractions
Addition and subtraction
Multiplication and division

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Fractions
Algebraic fractions
A numerical fraction is represented by one integer divided by another.
Division of symbols follows the same rules to create algebraic fractions.
For example,
5 3 can be written as 5 so a b can be written as a
3
b

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Fractions
Addition and subtraction
The addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions follow the same rules as
the addition and subtraction of numerical fractions the operations can only
be performed when the denominators are the same.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Fractions
Multiplication and division
Just like numerical fractions, algebraic fractions are multiplied by
multiplying their numerators and denominators separately.
To divide by an algebraic fraction multiply by its reciprocal.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

41

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Division of one expression by another

Division is defined as repetitive subtraction and we set out the division of

one expression by another in the same way as we set out the long division
of two numbers. For example:
4 x2 6 x7
3x 4 12 x3 2 x2 3x 28
12 x3 16 x2
18x2 3x
18x2 24 x
21x 28
21x 28

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

44

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Algebraic expressions
Powers
Logarithms
Multiplication of algebraic expressions of a single variable
Fractions
Division of one expression by another
Factorization of algebraic expressions

STROU

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

45

Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Factorization of algebraic expressions
Common factors
Common factors by grouping
Useful products of two simple factors
Quadratic expressions as the product of two simple factors
Factorization of a quadratic expression
Test for simple factors

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Factorization of algebraic expressions
Common factors
The simplest form of factorization is the extraction of highest common
factors from a pair of expressions. For example:
35x2 y 2 10 xy3 5xy 2 7 x 2 y

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Factorization of algebraic expressions
Common factors by grouping
Four termed expressions can sometimes be factorized by grouping into two
binomial expressions and extracting common factors from each. For
example:
2ac 6bc ad 3bd
(2ac 6bc) (ad 3bd )
2c(a 3b) d (a 3b)
(a 3b)(2c d )

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Factorization of algebraic expressions
Useful products of two simple factors
A number of standard results are worth remembering:

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(a )

(a b)2 a2 2ab b2

(b)

(a b)2 a2 2ab b2

(c)

(a b)(a b) a 2 b2

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Factorization of algebraic expressions
Quadratic expressions as the product of two simple factors

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(a)

( x g )( x k ) x2 ( g k ) x gk

(b)

( x g )( x k ) x2 ( g k ) x gk

(c)

( x g )( x k ) x2 ( g k ) x gk

Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Factorization of algebraic expressions
Factorization of a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c when a = 1
The factorization is given as:
x 2 bx c ( x f1)( x f 2 )
Where, if c > 0, f1 and f2 are factors of c whose sum equals b, both factors
having the same sign as b.
If c < 0, f1 and f2 are factors of c with opposite signs, the numerically larger
having the same sign as b and their difference being equal to b.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Factorization of algebraic expressions
Factorization of a quadratic expression ax2 + bx + c when a 1
The factorization is given as:
ax2 bx c ax 2 f1x f 2 x c
Where, if c > 0, f1 and f2 are two factors of |ac| whose sum equals |b|, both
factors having the same sign as b.
If c < 0 their values differ by the value of |b|, the numerically larger of the
two having the same sign as b and the other factor having the opposite sign.

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Factorization of algebraic expressions
Test for simple factors
The quadratic expression:
ax2 bx c
Has simple factors if, and only if:
b2 4ac k 2 for some integer k

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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Programme F2: Introduction to algebra

Learning outcomes
Use alphabetic symbols to supplement the numerals and to combine these symbols
using all the operations of arithmetic
Simplify algebraic expressions by collecting like terms and abstracting common
factors from similar terms
Remove brackets and so obtain alternative algebraic expressions
Manipulate expressions involving powers and multiply two expressions together
Manipulate logarithms both numerically and symbolically
Manipulate algebraic fractions and divide one expression by another
Factorize algebraic expressions using standard factorizations
Factorize quadratic algebraic expressions

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Worked examples and exercises are in the text

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