ME 3604: Machine
Design
Design of Permanent Joints
Dr. Faraz Junejo
Introduction
This chapter introduces permanent
joining
methods
which
include:
welding,
soldering,
cementing,
bonding, etc.
Permanent joining usually leads to
significant
savings
over
nonpermanent joining (because of the
elimination of fasteners and holes).
Welding
Welding is the process of joining two pieces of
metal together by hammering, pressure or
fusion. Filler metal may or may not be used.
It is the strongest and most common method of
permanently joining steel components together.
Arc welding is the most important since it is
adaptable
to
various
manufacturing
environments and is relatively cheap.
A weldment is fabricated by welding together
a collection of metal shapes.
A welded joint has following
advantages:
Compared to other type of joints, the welded joint
has higher efficiency. An efficiency > 95 % is
easily possible.
Since the added material is minimum, the joint has
lighter weight.
Welded joints have smooth appearances.
It is less expensive.
Forming a joint in difficult locations is possible
through welding.
Some typically welded machine
components are listed below:
Pressure vessels, steel structures.
Flanges welded to shafts and axles.
Crank shafts
Heavy hydraulic turbine shafts
Large gears, pulleys, flywheels
Gear housing
Machine frames and bases
Housing and mill-stands.
Types of welds
The form of a welded joint is dictated largely by
the layout of the joined components.
Two most common forms or type of welds are:
1.fillet or lap joint : are the most used type for
machine elements
2.butt or groove joint : are usually used for
pressure vessels
Since welding is associated with a significant
increase in temperature, there will be some
metallurgical changes in the parent material
in the vicinity of the weldments.
Thus, when checking for failure of the parent
material in the vicinity of the weldments, it is
recommended to use the properties of HotRolled (HR) material even if the material is
Cold-Drawn (CD).
Also, residual stresses might be introduced
during welding because of clamping or
sometimes because of the order of welding.
Residual Stresses
Heat from welding may cause localized
expansion, which is taken up during
welding by either the molten metal or the
placement of parts being welded.
When the finished weldment cools, some
areas cool and contract more than others,
leaving residual stresses.
Butt welding
Butt welding is a welding technique used to
connect parts which are nearly parallel and don't
overlap. i.e. joining two pieces of material together
along a single edge in a single plane.
Butt-welding joint is made by gradually heating up
the two weld ends with a weld plate and then
joining them under a specific pressure.
Butt welding joints are designed for
objects that rest on the same plane,
such as:
steel plates used to cover a floor or
roof
Pressure vessels i.e.
closed
container designed to hold gases or
liquids at a pressure substantially
different from the ambient pressure
Different types of Butt welds
Lap or fillet joint
Lap or fillet joint is obtained by overlapping the
plates and welding their edges.
The fillet joints may be single transverse fillet,
double transverse fillet or parallel fillet joints
Basic weld types and their
symbols
After welding is done the surface is properly
finished.
The contour of the welded joint may be flush,
concave or convex and the surface finish may
be grinding finish, machining finish or chipping
finish.
The symbols of the contour and the surface
finish are shown below
Welding Symbols
A
weld is fabricated by welding together a
collection of metal shapes, cut to particular
configurations.
The
weld must be precisely specified on working
drawing and this is done by welding symbol, Fig.
9-1.
The
arrow of this symbol points to the joint to
be welded.
Reference
line
body of
the
The
symbol contains
as many of the
Supplementary
following
elements as are deemed
necessary:
Arrow
symbols
Basic weld symbols in
Finish symbols
Fig. 9-2
Tail
Dimensions and other
Specification or
Welding Symbols
(contd.)
Welding symbol standardized by American Welding Society
Specifies details of weld on machine drawings
Fig. 94 Circle on weld symbol indicates that the welding is to go
all around.
Welding Symbols (contd.)
WELD
Fig. 91
Welding Symbols (contd.)
Arrow side of a joint is the line, side, area, or near member to which
the arrow points
The side opposite the arrow side is the other side
Shape of weld is shown with the symbols below
Fig. 92
Example
If the desired weld is a fillet weld of
size 10 mm to be done on each side
of Tee joint with convex contour, the
weld symbol will be as following
Types of Welding
There are 2 general types of welds:
1. Fillet
Fillet welds
welds for general machine elements.
2. Butt or groove
groove welds
welds for pressure vessels, piping
systems,...
Bead
Plug or slot
There are also others such as:
,
Bead
Fillet
Plug
or
slot
Figure 9-2
Arc and gas-weld symbols
groove
Parts to be joined must be arranged so that there is
sufficient clearance for welding operation.
Due to heat, there are metallurgical changes in the
parent metal in the vicinity of the weld.
Residual stresses may be introduced because of
clamping or holding.
These residual stresses are not severe enough to
cause concern.
A light heat treatment after welding is done to
relive these stresses.
When the parts to be welded are thick, a
preheating will also be of benefit.
Welding Symbol Examples
Figure 9-3 Fillet
welds
Welding Symbol Examples
(contd.)
Figure 9-4
The circle on the weld symbol indicates
that the welding is to go all around.
Welding Symbol Examples
(contd.)
Figure 9-5
Welding Symbol Examples
(contd.)
Welding Symbol Examples
(contd.)
Figure 9-6
Tensile Butt Joint
Simple butt joint loaded in tension or compression
Stress is normal stress
Throat h of the weld does not include extra reinforcement
l: Length of the weld
Reinforcement adds some strength for static loaded joints
Reinforcement adds stress
concentration
and
therefore it should be
removed by grinding or
machining if the joint is
subjected
to
fatigue
Fig. 97a
loading
Shear Butt Joint
Simple butt joint loaded in shear
Average shear stress
Fig. 97b
Butt welds
The reinforcement can be desirable, but it
varies somewhat and does produce stress
concentration, for example at point A in the
figure. If fatigue loads exist, it is good practice
to grind or machine off the reinforcement.
Butt welds strength
The main failure mechanism of welded butt
joint is tensile failure. Therefore the strength
of a butt joint is:
F = ST hl
where
F = allowable load
ST = allowable tensile strength of the weld
material.
h = weld throat
l = length of the weld.
Summary: Stress components in
the weld throat cross section of
butt weldment
Transverse Fillet Weld
For a Fillet weld loaded in tension
Fig. 98
Weld loading is complex i.e. The forces in each
weldment will have two components. Normal
force Fn and Shear force Fs where their
magnitudes change with the angle.
Transverse Fillet Weld
In Fig. 99 a portion of the welded joint has
been isolated from Fig. 98 as a free body.
From equilibrium the magnitudes are
found to be:
Fig. 99
Transverse Fillet Weld
(contd.)
Summation of forces
Law of sines
Solving for throat thickness t
Fig. 99
Transverse Fillet Weld
Nominal stresses(contd.)
at
angle
Von Mises Stress at
angle
Fig. 99
Largest von Mises stress occurs at = 62.5 with value of
max = 2.16F/(hl). The corresponding values of
and , are = 1.196 F/(hl) and = 0.623 F/(hl).
Maximum shear stress occurs at = 67.5 with value of
max = 1.207F/(hl) with a corresponding = 0.5 F/
(hl).
Experimental Stresses in Transverse
Experimental
Fillet Weldresults are more complex
Summary
However this analysis procedure is too
complicated. Also, the geometry of weldments
is not uniform.
Instead, a simplified (conservative) approach
is used for design purposes.
The approach ignores the normal stresses and
assumes that the external force is carried as shear
stress only on the smallest throat area of the
weldment (the smallest value of t @
Simplified approach
Consider a single transverse joint as shown in figure
P
P
As seen earlier, the general stress distribution in the weld
metal is complicated.
In design, a simple procedure is used assuming that entire
load P acts as shear force on the throat area, which is the
smallest area of the cross section in a fillet weld.
As seen earlier, the general stress distribution in the weld
metal is complicated.
In design, a simple procedure is used assuming that entire
load P acts as shear force on the throat area, which is the
smallest area of the cross section in a fillet weld.
If the fillet weld has equal base and height, (h, say), then the
cross section area of the throat is given by
With the above consideration
the permissible load carried
by a transverse fillet weld is
P = Ss Athroat
where
SS = allowable shear stress
Athroat = throat area =
With the above consideration
the permissible load carried
by a transverse fillet weld is
P = Ss Athroat
where
SS = allowable shear stress
Athroat = throat area =
Please note that for a double transverse fillet joint
the allowable load is twice that of the single fillet
joint.
Transverse Fillet Weld
Simplified Model
No analytical approach accurately predicts the experimentally measured
stresses.
Standard practice is to use a simple and conservative model
Assume the external load is carried entirely by shear forces on the minimum
throat area.
By ignoring normal stress on throat, the shearing stresses are inflated
sufficiently to render the model conservative.
By comparison with previous maximum shear stress model, this inflates
estimated shear stress by factor of 1.414/1.207 = 1.17.
Summary: Fillet welds
Conservative because all the external force is
assumed to cause shear stress knowing that the
shear strength is almost half of the normal
strength.
According to this approach, the shear stress is
found as:
The same equation is also used to calculate the
shear stress when a fillet weld is loaded in
shear.
Parallel Fillet Welds
Same equation also applies for
simpler case of simple shear loading
in fillet weld
Note: Typically the depth of
the throat h should be at
least as thick as the thickness
of metal you are welding.
Fig. 911
Example: 1
Arrow points to the joint to be welded
Indicates two fillet weld, hence
l = length of the weld = 2b.
2F
hl
( hl )
F
2
since,
Answers
9-1: F= 49.5kN
9-2: F= 22.1 kip
9-3: F= 49.5kN
9-4: F= 44.2 kip
Exercise: 1
Two plates 200 mm wide and 10 mm thick
are to be welded by means of transverse
welds at the ends. If the plates are
subjected to a load of 70 kN, find the size
of the weld (i.e. length of the weld)
assuming the allowable tensile stress 70
MPa.
Exercise: 1 (solution)
According to the simplified design principle of fillet
(transverse) joint, the weld is designed assuming
maximum shear stress occurs along the throat
area; i.e.
Since tensile strength is specified the shear
strength may be calculated as half of tensile
strength, i.e., SS = 0.5 ST = 35 MPa
Now the size or length of the weld can be computed
by rearranging0.707
Eq:9.3
F
0.707 (70 103 )
l
h
(35 106 )(10 10 3 )
l 282.8mm
Exercise: 1 (solution)
Now if we assume there contd.
are two welds, then in this case length of
the weld = 2l, hence
0.707 F
0.707 (70 103 )
2l
h
(35 106 )(10 10 3 )
Hence the minimum
l 141
.4mmof the weld is 141.4 mm.
length
However some extra length of the weld is to be provided as
allowance for starting and stopping of the bead (a deposit of filler
material from a single pass). An usual allowance of 12.5 mm is kept.
(Note that the allowance has no connection with the plate
thickness)
Adding an allowance of 12.5 mm for stopping and starting of the
bead, the length of the weld should be 154 mm.
Exercise: 2
A plate 50 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick is
to be welded to another plate by means of
parallel fillet welds. The plates are
subjected to a load of 50 kN. Find the
length of the weld. Assume allowable
shear strength to be 56 MPa.
Exercise: 2 (solution)
In a parallel fillet welding two lines of welding are to be
provided. Each line shares a load of F= 50kN/2 = 25kN
Hence the minimum length of the weld (l) is given
by rearranging Eq:3
0.707 F
0.707 (25 103 )
l
h
(56 106 )(12.5 10 3 )
l 50.5mm of 12.5 mm for stopping and
Adding an allowance
starting of the bead, the length of the weld should
be 63 mm.
Example: 2
2F
hl
( hl )
F
2
since,
The circle on the weld symbol indicates
that the welding is to go all around, hence
l = length of the weld = 2 (b + d)
Answers
9-13: = 141 Mpa
9-14: = 22.6 kpsi
9-15: = 177 MPa
9-16: = 15.1 kpsi
The Strength of Welded
Joints
The electrode materials are standardized and
they are usually chosen such that they have higher
strength than the parent materials.
Table 9 - 3 gives the minimum properties for the
AWS electrode classes.
It should be noted that the table gives the
tensile yield strength of the electrode material.
The shear yield strength is found using the
distortion energy theory as:
Minimum Weld-Metal Properties
(Table 93)
It is preferable, in designing welded components, to select a steel
that will result in a fast, economical weld.
Best results are obtained for steels having a UNS specifications
between G10140 and G10230.
All these steels have a tensile strength in the hot-rolled condition in
the range of 60 to 70 kpsi.
Permissible stresses are now based on the yield strength of the
material instead of the ultimate strength, and the code permits the
use of a variety of ASTM structural steels having yield strengths
varying from 33 to 50 kpsi.
For these ASTM steels, Sy = 0.5 Su.
Table 9-4 lists the formulas specified by the code for calculating
these permissible stresses for various load conditions.
Stresses Permitted by the AISC Code for
Weld Metal
The Strength of Welded
Joints (contd.)
As mentioned earlier, the parent material in the vicinity of
the weldment will be subjected to high temperatures and
thus its properties might change.
Therefore, if the parent material is Cold-Dawn it will be
heat treated and thus it will have properties similar to a HotRolled material (in the vicinity of the weldment).
According to the welding code the allowable shear stress
in the base material is:
Example: 3
Problem 9-9:
Since during welding due to high
temperatures cold-rolled properties degrade to hot-rolled
properties in the neighborhood of the weld, therefore using
table 9.4 for fillet welds imply:
allow min 0.3S ut ,0.4 S y
Stress permissible for weld metal
Stress permitted on base metal
Now using Table A-20 yields
1018CD: Sut = 440 MPa; Sy = 370 MPa
1018HR: Sut = 400 MPa; Sy = 220 MPa
allow min 0.3S ut ,0.4 S y
Hence,
allow min 0.3( 400),0.4( 220)
allow min120,88
Limiting value is 88 MPa
Therefore for both materials
i.e. weldment allowable load is
given by:
2F
hl
( hl )
F
31.1 kN
2
since,
Now using Table A-20 yields
1035HR: Sut = 72 kpsI; Sy = 39.5 kpsi
1020CD: Sut = 68 kpsI; Sy = 57 kpsi
1020HR: Sut = 55kpsI; Sy = 30 kpsi
Hence,
allow min 0.3S ut ,0.4 S y
allow min 0.3(55),0.4(30)
allow min16.5,12
Limiting value is 12 kpsi
Therefore for both materials
i.e. weldment allowable load is
given by:
2F
hl
( hl )
F
21.2 kpsi
2
since,
Strength of Welded
Joints: Summary
Must check for failure in parent material and in weld
Weld strength is dependent on choice of electrode material
Weld material is often stronger than parent material
Parent material experiences heat treatment near weld
Cold drawn parent material may become more like hot
rolled in vicinity of weld
Often welded joints are designed by following codes rather
than designing by the conventional factor of safety method
The procedure for evaluating the strength of welded joints is as follows:
Find the primary shear stress due to external forces.
Find the secondary shear stress due torsion and/or
bending moments.
Add the primary and secondary shear stress
components using vector summation.
Find the strength of weldments, and thus the allowable
load.
Find the strength of the parent material and thus the
allowable load.
Stresses in Welded Joints in
Torsion
Figure 9-12 illustrates a cantilever of length l welded to
a column by 2 fillet welds.
The reaction at the
support of a cantilever
always consists of shear
force V and a moment
reaction M.
The shear force produces
a primary shear in the
welds of magnitude
V
'
A
(9.4)
where A is the throat
area of the welds.
The moment at the
support
produces
secondary
shear
or
torsion of the welds, and
this stress is given by
Mr
"
(9.5)
where
r:
distance from the
centroid of the weld
group to the point in the
weld of interest.
J: second polar moment
of area of the group
Fillet Welds Loaded in Torsion:
Summary
Fillet welds carrying both direct
shear V and moment M
Primary shear
Eq: 9.4
Secondary shear
Eq: 9.5
A is the throat area of all welds
r is distance from centroid of
weld group to point of interest
J is second polar moment of
area of weld group about
centroid of group
Fig. 912
Figure 9-13 shows 2 welds in a group. The
rectangles represent the throat areas of the
welds.
Weld 1 has a throat
width b1 = 0.707 h1
Weld 2 has a throat
width d2 = 0.707 h2
Throat area of both
welds together is
A = A1 + A2 = b1d1
+ b2 d 2
which is the area to
be used in Eq. (9Eq: 9.4
4) to compute
The x-axis passes
through the centroid G1
of the weld 1.
The second moment of
area about this axis is
b1d13
Ix
12
Similarly, the second
moment of area about an
axis passing through G1
parallel to the y-axis is
d1b13
Iy
12
The second polar
moment of areas of weld
1 and weld 2 about their
centroids are
3
1 1
3
1 1
bd
db
J G1 I x I y
12
12
b2 d 23 d 2b23
JG2 I x I y
12
12
The centroid G of the weld group is located at
A1 x1 A2 x2
x
A
A1 y1 A2 y2
y
A
The distances r1 and r2 from G1 and G2 are respectively given by
r1 x x1 y
12
2 12
r2 y2 y x2 x
Using the parallel axis
theorem, the second polar
moment of area of the weld
group is
J J G1 A1r12 J G 2 A2 r22
This is the quantity to be used in Eq. (9-5). The distance r must
be measured from G and the moment M computed about G.
The quantities
b13
and
d 23, which represent the weld width are
small and hence can be neglected.
The terms b d 3 12 and d b3 12 Makes JG1 and JG2 linear in the
1 1
2 2
weld width.
Setting weld widths b1 and d2 to unity leads to the idea of treating
each fillet weld as line.
The resulting second moment of area is then a unit second polar
moment of area.
The value of Ju same regardless of weld size.
Since throat width of a fillet weld is 0.707h, the relation between
J and the unit value is
Ju :
472
J 0.707 h J u
is found from table 9.1 Page
(9.6
)
Example of Finding A and J
Rectangles represent
throat areas. t = 0.707 h
Fig. 913
Example of Finding A and J
Note that t3 terms will be
very small compared to
b3 and d3
Usually neglected
Leaves JG1 and JG2 linear
in weld width
Can normalize by
treating each weld as a
line with unit thickness t
Results in unit second
polar moment of area, Ju
Since t = 0.707h,
J = 0.707hJu
Fig. 913
Common Torsional Properties of
Fillet Welds (Table 91)
Common Torsional Properties of
Fillet Welds (Table 91)
Stresses in Welded Joints in
Bending
Stresses in Welded Joints in
Bending (contd.)
Stresses in Welded Joints in
Bending (contd.)
Table 9 - 2 gives the location of the centroid and
the unit moment of inertia Iu for some common
weld shapes.
The moment of the inertia of the throat area is
found as:
Fillet Welds Loaded in Bending:
Summary
Fig. 917
Bending Properties of Fillet Welds (Table
92)
Bending Properties of Fillet Welds (Table
92)
Coursework
Exercises
Shigleys Mechanical Engineering
Design , R.C. Budynas & J.K Nisbett, 9th
Edition
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
9.3 9. 4
9.7 9. 8
9.11 9. 12
9.15 9. 17
9.19 9. 20
9.23 9. 24
