Statistical Quality

Control
(SQC)
SQC may be defined as the industrial management technique by
means of which product of uniform acceptable quality are
manufactured. It is concerned mainly with setting things right rather
than discovering and rejecting those made wrong.
SQC techniques are being used extensively in almost all industries
such as automobiles, aircrafts, textile, rubber etc.

Quality control is a powerful technique for effective

diagnosis of the lack of quality .

Quality control covers all factors and processes

of production and quality of 4 things is must:
Materials: Good quality materials help in
reducing waste and increasing output.
Manpower: Trained and qualified personnel will
increase efficiency due to better quality
production and reduce cost .
Machines: Better quality equipment will provide
high efficiency and reduces defectives.
Management: its imperative for increase in
efficiency harmony in relations and growth in
business.

SQC engages in three methodologies:

Acceptance Sampling: When all products are required to be

inspected, however we cant test all of them, So samples of

products are taken and conclusion is drawn using the result of
inspected samples. It also specifies what techniques to be
used for acceptability of the product inspected.
Design of experiments: Trial and error can be used to run

experiments in design of products and processes to find

optimal settings to produce good quality products.

Statistical process control(SPC): SPC aims at controlling the variability

of process output using a device called the control chart. Other than
control charts, SPC also monitors process capability, an indicator for
adequacy of process.SPC aims at maintaining a stable, capable and
predictable process.
Several benefits of using the SPC approach are as follows:
a) This type of the process being controlled has no restrictions but the
process tackled will be improved.
b) Decisions guided by SPC are based on facts not opinions.
c) Quality awareness of the workforce increases because they become
directly involved in the improvement process.
d) Knowledge and experience of those who operate the process are
released in a systematic way through the investigative approach.

Process Capability
It is the range over which the natural variation of a process occurs
as determined by the system of common or random causes.
The capability of a process is the fraction of output that can be

routinely found to be within specifications.

Process capability refers to how capable a process is of making
parts that are within the range of engineering or customer
specifications.
Process capability has three important components:
(1) The design specifications.
(2) The centering of the natural variation.
(3) The range or spread, of variation.
Graphs show the 4 cases possible.

Variability:
In every manufacturing process, there is some variability. This variability
may be large or small, but it is always present.
It can be divided into two types:
a) Common or Random causes- variability is said to be inherent in the
process and it can be expected to occur naturally within a process.
Factors like equipment vibration, passing traffic, atmospheric pressure or
temperature changes etc which are beyond control of human hand are
called common causes.
b) Assignable or Special causes- Variability due to
assignable causes refers to the variation that can be linked to specific or
special causes that disturb a process like tool failure, power supply
interruption, process controller malfunction, adding wrong ingredients or
wrong quantities, switching a vendor etc.

How to set up a Capability Study?

Initially we do data collection to collect as much data as possible over
a defined time period. This will yield reliable capability number since it
is based upon a large sample size. In the practice of process
improvement, determining process capability is Step 5:
Step 1 Gather process data
Step 2 Plot the data on control charts
Step 3 Find the control limits.
Step 4 Get the process in control (in other words, identify and
eliminate assignable causes).
Step 5 Calculate process capability.
Step 6 If process capability is not sufficient, improve the process
(reduce its inherent variation), and go
back to Step 1.

The Seven Quality Improvement

Tools
SPC defines some methodologies used to correct the errors and
reduce variations.

1)

Flowchart:
The flowchart lists the order of
activities in a project or process and
their interdependency. It expresses
detailed process knowledge.

2) Histogram:
The histogram is a bar chart showing
a distribution of variable quantities or
characteristics.

3) Pareto chart:
The Pareto chart, as shown below,
indicates the distribution of effects
attributable to various causes or
factors arranged from the most
frequent to the least frequent.

4) Cause and effect Diagram:

Its most frequent use is to list the
causes of some particular quality
problem or defect. The lines coming
of the core horizontal line are the
main causes while the lines coming
off those are sub causes.

5) Scatter Diagram:
The scatter diagram shows any
existing pattern in the relationship
between two variables that are
thought to be related. For eg: As
temperatures drop, do cases of the
common cold rise in number?

6) Run Chart:
The run chart shows the history and
pattern of variation. It is plot of data
points in time sequence, connected
by a line. Its primary use is in
determining trends over time.

7) Control charts
The control chart in particular is a powerful process quality monitoring device and
it constitutes the core of statistical process control (SPC). It is a line chart marked
with control limits at 3 standard deviations (s) above and below the average
quality level.
A typical control chart consists of 3 horizontal lines:
1) Central line(CL)- desired level of the process.
2) Upper control limit(UCL)-upper limit of tolerance.
3) Lower control limit(LCL)- lower limit of tolerance.
*UCL and LCL are represented by dotted lines. The quality scale is given by
vertical scale and sample subgroup by horizontal line.

Abnormal patterns in control charts

When a process is in statistical control, the points on a control chart fluctuate
randomly between the control limits with no recognizable, non-random
pattern. The following checklist provides a set of general rules tor examining a
process to determine if it is in control:
1. No points are outside control limits.
2. The number of points above and below the center line is about the same.
3. The points seem to fall randomly above and below the center line.
4. Most points, but not all, are near the center line, and only a few are dose
to the control limits.
Several types of unusual patterns arise in control charts, which are shown
below:

One Point Outside control limits

A single point outside the control limits is usually produced by a special
cause. Often the R-chart provides a similar indication.

Sudden Shift in the Process Average

An unusual number of consecutive points falling on one side of the center line
is usually an indication that the process average has suddenly shifted.
In both the xbar and R-charts, possible causes might be a new operator, a new
inspector, a new machine setting etc

Cycles
Cycles are short, repeated patterns in the chart, alternating high peaks and
low valleys. These patterns are the result of causes that come and go on a
regular basis.

Trends
A trend is the result of some cause that gradually affects the quality
characteristics of the product and causes the points on a control chart to gradually
move up or down from the center line. In the xbar chart, trends may be the result
of improving operator skills or aging of equipment.

Hugging the Center Line

Hugging the center line occurs when nearly all the points fall dose to the center
line. In the control chart it appears that the control limits are too wide.

Hugging the Control Limits

This pattern shows up when many points are near the control limits with very few
in between. It is often ,called a mixture and is actually a combination of two
different patterns on the same chart.

Instability
Instability is characterized by unnatural and erratic fluctuations on both sides of
the chart over a period of time. Points will often lie outside both the upper and
lower control limits without a consistent pattern.

Control charts for

variables
For characteristics measurable quantitatively

1) xbar and R(range) charts

2) xbar and s(standard deviation) charts

Xbar and R charts

No production process is perfect enough to produce all
items exactly alike. Steps for xbar and R charts:
Measurement: the work of control chart starts first with measurements. Errors
in measurements can enter the data through faulty instruments, lack of
experience etc.
Selection of samples: in order to make the control chart analysis effective, it is
effective to pay due regard to the rational selection of the samples. Samples
are generally taken of size 4 or 5.
Calculation of xbar and R for each sample:
The number of samples is indicated by k, and n denotes the sample size. For
each sample i, the mean (denoted by xbari) and the range(Ri) are computed.
Next, the overall mean (x-doublebar) and average range (Rbar) calculations
are made. These values specify the center lines for the xbar and R-charts. The
overall mean is the average of the sample means xbar;.

Question: A machine is set to deliver the packets of a given weight. Ten

samples of size five each were examined and following results were obtained:
Sample
no.:

10

Mean:

43

49

37

44

45

37

51

46

43

47

Range:

Calculate the values for the central line and the control limits for the mean chart
and range chart. Comment on the state of control.
Given: A2=0.577,D3=0,D4=2.115

Solution:
Here, n=5,k=10 , Using the formulae, we get:
x_doublebar: 44.2
r_doublebar: 5.8 , then 3 sigma control limits are given by:
For x_doublebar:

CL: 44.2

UCL: x_doublebar+(A2*Rbar)=44.2+(0.577*5.8)=44.2+3.346=47.546
LCL: x_doublebar+(A2*Rbar)=44.2-(0.577*5.8)=44.2-3.346=40.854
For x_doublebar: CL=5.8
UCL= D4*Rbar=2.115*5.8=12.67
LCL= D3*Rbar=0*5.8=0

Comments:
x_doublebar= Since sample numbers 2,3,6 and 7 are outside the control
limits, therefore the process average is out of control.
Rbar= since none of the sample ranges lie beyond the control limits of the
R chart ,process variability is under control.
However as one is out of control , so it cant be regarded in a state of
statistical control.

Control chart for mean chart.

X axis- sample no.
Y axis- mean of the sample

55

M
ea
n:

50

cl
45

LC
L
U
CL

40

35
1

10

Xbar and s-charts(sigma chart):

Since standard deviation is an ideal measure of dispersion. An alternative to
using the R-chart along with the xbar chart is to compute and plot the standard
deviations of each sample over R. The range has traditionally been used.
The sample standard deviation is a more sensitive and better indicator of
process variability, especially for larger sample sizes.
1
s 2 * (X X ) 2
n
n 1 2
E (s 2 )
*
n
E ( s ) C2
n 1 2
Va r( s) E ( s 2 ) ( E ( s ))2 (
C2 ) * 2
n
S .E ( s) C3
UCLs E ( s) 3S .E (s ) (C2 3C3 )
LCLs E ( s ) 3S .E ( s ) (C2 3C3 )
If value of sigma is not known, then we use its estimate, based on sbar given by

s / C2

C3
s B4
C2
C
LCLS E ( s ) 3S .E ( s ) s 3 3 s B3
C2

UCLS E ( s ) 3S .E (s ) s 3

Control charts for attributes

1) p-chart(fraction defective)
2) np or d-chart(no. of defectives)
3) c-chart(no. of defects per unit)

P-chart
When dealing with attributes, if all samples or subgroups are ascertained to
have sample population to have same population proportion P.
Let d be the number of defectives in sample of size n.
sample proportion defective is p=d/n.
Hence, d is a binomial variate with parameters n and P.
E(d)=nP, var(d)=nPQ, Q=1-P.
Thus,E(p)=E(d/n)=(1/n)E(d)=P
Var(p)=PQ/n
so 3 sigma control limits are given by:

E ( p) 3S .E ( p) P 3 PQ

P A PQ

or

P A P (1 P )

Question: The figures of the following defects of 22lots each containing 2000 belts
each are given:
425

430

216

341

225

322

280

306

337

305

356

402

216

264

126

409

193

326

280

389

451

420

Draw control chart for defective and comment on the state of control of the process.

Solution: n=2000 for each lot, let di and pi be no.of defectives and fraction of
defective for ith lot. Then,
di
pi
p
2000

pbar=0.1595 , UCL=0.1841 , LCL=0.1349

0.25

0.2

0.15
fraction defective
0.1

UCL
LCL

0.05

CL

0
1

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

d-chart
If instead of p, the sample proportion defective, we use d, the number of
defectives in the sample, then the 3 sigma control limits are:
E(d)+-3 S.E(d) = nP+-3*sqrt(nP(1-P))
implies,
UCL= nP+3*sqrt(nP(1-P))
LCL= nP-3*sqrt(nP(1-P))

p
nk

Question:20 samples each of size 10 were inspected. The number of defectives

detected in each of them is given below.
Construct the number of defectives chart and establish quality standard for the
future(d chart).

Sample
no.

10

No. of
0
defectives

Sample
no.

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

11

No. of
1
defectives

d or np-chart
10
9
8
7
6
No.of defectives

5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

no.of defectives
UCL
CL
LCL

c-chart
It applies to no. of defects per unit. Control limits for c-chart:
here the sample size n is large and so the probability p of the occurrence of a
defect in any one spot is very small such that np is finite. So pattern of
variation in data can be represented by poisson distribution.
If we assume that c is poisson variate with parameter lambda.
E(c)=lambda, Var(c)=lambda
then 3 sigma control limits for c-chart are given by:
UCL= lambda+3*sqrt(lambda)
LCL = lambda-3*sqrt(lambda)
CL= lambda
OR
It can easily be seen that as cbar is an unbiased estimate of lambda.
So limits become
cbar +-3*sqrt(cbar)

Question: The number of defects on 20 items are given below.

Devise a suitable control scheme for the future.
Item
no.

10

no. of
defects

Item
no.

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

no. of
defects