Recursion and Implementation of
Functions
CS-2303
System Programming Concepts
(Slides include materials from The C Programming Language, 2nd edition, by Kernighan and Ritchie and
from C: How to Program, 5th and 6th editions, by Deitel and Deitel)
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
Definition
Recursive Function: a function that calls
itself
Directly or indirectly
Each recursive call is made with a new,
independent set of arguments
Previous calls are suspended
Allows very simple programs for very
complex problems
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
Simplest Example
int factorial(int x) {
if (x <= 1)
return 1;
else
return x * factorial (x-1);
} // factorial
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
More Interesting Example
Towers of Hanoi
Move stack of disks from one peg to another
Move one disk at a time
Larger disk may never be on top of smaller disk
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
Tower of Hanoi Program
#include <stdio.h>
void move (int n, int a, int
c, int b);
int main() {
int disks;
printf ("How many disks?");
scanf ("%d", &disks);
move (disks, 1, 3, 2);
return 0;
} // main
/* PRE: n >= 0. Disks are arranged
small to large on the pegs a, b,
and c. At least n disks on peg
a. No disk on b or c is smaller
than the top n disks of a.
POST: The n disks have been moved
from a to c. Small to large
order is preserved. Other disks
on a, b, c are undisturbed. */
void move (int n, int a, int c, int
b) {
if (n > 0)
{
move (n-1, a, b, c);
printf ("Move one disk
from %d to %d\n", a, c);
move (n-1, b, c, a);
}
// if (n > 0)
Is pre-condition satisfied before
this call to move? return;
}
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
//
Recursion and Function
Implementation
move
5
Tower of Hanoi Program
#include <stdio.h>
void move (int n, int a, int
c, int b);
int main() {
int disks;
printf ("How many disks?");
scanf ("%d", &disks);
move (disks, 1, 3, 2);
return 0; is satisfied here, is it
If pre-condition
} // main
still satisfied here?
/* PRE: n >= 0. Disks are arranged
small to large on the pegs a, b,
and c. At least n disks on peg
a. No disk on b or c is smaller
than the top n disks of a.
POST: The n disks have been moved
from a to c. Small to large
order is preserved. Other disks
on a, b, c are undisturbed. */
void move (int n, int a, int c, int
b) {
if (n > 0)
{
move (n-1, a, b, c);
printf ("Move one disk
from %d to %d\n", a, c);
move (n-1, b, c, a);
}
// if (n > 0)
And here?
return;
} //
move
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
Tower of Hanoi Program
#include <stdio.h>
void move (int n, int a, int
c, int b);
int main() {
int disks;
printf ("How many disks?");
scanf ("%d", &disks);
move (disks, 1, 3, 2);
return 0;
} // main
If pre-condition is true and
if n = 1, does move satisfy
the post-condition?
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
/* PRE: n >= 0. Disks are arranged
small to large on the pegs a, b,
and c. At least n disks on peg
a. No disk on b or c is smaller
than the top n disks of a.
POST: The n disks have been moved
from a to c. Small to large
order is preserved. Other disks
on a, b, c are undisturbed. */
void move (int n, int a, int c, int
b) {
if (n > 0)
{
move (n-1, a, b, c);
printf ("Move one disk
from %d to %d\n", a, c);
move (n-1, b, c, a);
}
// if (n > 0)
return;
} //
move
Recursion and Function
Implementation
Can we reason that this
program correctly plays
Tower of Hanoi?
7
Why Recursion?
Are article of faith among CS students and faculty
but
a surprise to non-CS students.
Some problems are too hard to solve without
recursion
Most notably, the compiler!
Tower of Hanoi problem
Most problems involving linked lists and trees
(Later in the course)
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
Recursion vs. Iteration
Some simple recursive problems can be
unwound into loops
But code becomes less compact, harder to follow!
Hard problems cannot easily be expressed
in non-recursive code
Tower of Hanoi
Robots or avatars that learn
Advanced games
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
Personal Observation
From my own experience, programming
languages, environments, and computer
architectures that do not support recursion
are usually not rich enough to support a
diverse portfolio of applications
I.e., a wide variety of problems in many different
disciplines
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
10
Questions?
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Implementing Recursion The Stack
Definition The Stack
A last-in, first-out data structure provided by
the operating system for each running program
For temporary storage of automatic variables,
arguments, function results, and other stuff
I.e., the working storage for each, separate
function call.
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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The Stack (continued)
Every single time a function is called, an
area of the stack is reserved for that
particular call.
Known as its activation record in compiler
circles.
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Recursion is so important
that all modern computer architectures
specifically support it
Stack register
Instructions for manipulating The Stack
most modern programming languages
allow it
But not Fortran and not Cobol
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Recursion in C
Parameters, results, and automatic variables
allocated on the stack.
Allocated when function or compound statement
is entered
Released when function or compound statement is
exited
Values are not retained from one call to next (or
among recursions)
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Arguments and Results
1. Space for storing result is allocated by caller
On The Stack
Assigned by return statement of function
For use by caller
2. Arguments are values calculated by caller of
function
Placed on The Stack by caller in locations set aside for the
corresponding parameters
Function may assign new value to parameter, but
caller never looks at parameter/argument values again!
3. Arguments are removed when callee returns
Leaving only the result value for the caller
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
16
Typical Implementation of The Stack
Linear region of memory
Stack Pointer growing downward
Each time some information is pushed onto
The Stack, pointer moves downward
Each time info is popped off of The Stack,
pointer moves back upward
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
17
Typical Memory for Running Program
(Windows & Linux)
0xFFFFFFFF
stack
(dynamically allocated)
SP
address space
heap
(dynamically allocated)
static data
0x00000000
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
program code
(text)
Recursion and Function
Implementation
PC
18
Typical Memory for Running Program
(Windows & Linux)
0xFFFFFFFF
stack
(dynamically allocated)
SP
address space
heap
(dynamically allocated)
static data
0x00000000
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
program code
(text)
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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our disc
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PC
19
d la
ter
How it works
Imagine the following program:
int factorial(int n){
/* body of factorial function */
}
// factorial
Imagine also the caller:
int x = factorial(100);
What does compiled code look like?
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Compiled code: the caller
int x = factorial(100);
Provide integer-sized space on stack for result, so
that calling function can find it
Evaluate the expression 100 and leave it on the
stack (after result)
Put the current program counter somewhere so
that factorial function can return to the right place
in calling function
Transfer control to the called function
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Compiled code: factorial function
Save the callers registers in a dedicated space in the
activation record
Get the parameter n from the stack
Set aside some memory for local variables and
intermediate results on the stack
Do whatever factorial was programmed to do
Put the result in the space allocated by the caller
Restore the callers registers
Transfer back to the program counter saved by the
caller
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
22
Typical Address Space (Windows & Linux)
0xFFFFFFFF
stack
(dynamically allocated)
SP
Memory
address space
heap
(dynamically allocated)
static data
0x00000000
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
program code
(text)
Recursion and Function
Implementation
PC
23
Note
Through the magic of operating systems,
each running program has its own memory
Complete with stack & everything else
Called a process
Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Note (continued)
Not necessarily true in small, embedded
systems
Real-time & control systems
Mobile phone & PDA
Remote sensors, instrumentation, etc.
Multiple running programs share a memory
Each in own partition with own stack
Barriers to prevent each from corrupting others
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Shared Physical Memory
0x0000FFFF
stack
Process 3
stack
Physical
Process 2
memory
stack
Process 1
OS Kernel
0x00000000
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Questions?
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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The Stack (summary)
The stack gives each function call its own,
private place to work
Separate from all other calls to same function
Separate from all calls to other functions
Place for automatic variables, parameters, results
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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The Stack (continued)
Originally intended to support recursion
Mostly for computer scientists
Compiler writers, etc.
Powerful enabling concept
Allows function to be shared among multiple
running programs
Shared libraries
Concurrent activities within a process
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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Questions?
CS-2303, C-Term 2010
Recursion and Function
Implementation
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