Lecture 2:

Stoichiometry
Using the information in chemical equations

Part I: Basic Skills

Expressing mass in chemistry

Formula weight
Molecular weight
Molar mass

Concept of the mole

Atomic mass %
Empirical formula (simplest formula)
Molecular formula (actual formula)
Combustion analysis

Learning Catalytics

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3

Formula Weight & Molecular

Weight

Formula weight (FW)

sum of masses of all atoms in the chemical formula

e.g. NaCl FW = 23.0 amu + 35.5 amu = 58.5 amu

Molecular weight (MW)

sum of masses of atoms in the molecular formula

e.g. H2O MW = 21.0 amu + 16.0 amu = 18.0

amu

Molecular compounds have FW and MW

Non-molecular compounds have only FW
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The Mole (abbrev.= mol)

Number of atoms in 12 g of

12

1 mole = 6.0221023

Avogadros number (NA)

6.022x1023 mol-1 (note the units)

Molar mass (M)

mass of 1 mol of molecular formula
e.g. MHCl = 36.5 g mol-1

NOTE: Molar mass (in g/mol) is numerically

equal to the FW (in amu)
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One Mole Each:

Mass Moles Number of

Particles
Mass Moles: use molar mass (n = m/M)
e.g. How many moles in 168 g of water?

1 mol
m
168 g
9.32 mol
168 g
n
-1
18.02 g
M 18.02 g mol
Moles Particles: use Avogadros number
e.g. How many molecules in 168 g of water?

1 mol
24
23
-1
168 g
6.022 10 mol 5.61 10
18.02 g
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Another example
How many moles of nitrate present when 5.00
g of aluminum nitrate dissolved in water?
Aluminum Nitrate = Al(NO3)3 (or AlN3O9)
Molar Mass = MAl + 3MN + 9MO
= (26.982) + 3(14.0067) + 9(15.9994)
= 212.997 g/mol
Moles of Al(NO3)3 = (5.00 g)/(212.997 g/mol)
= 0.02347 mol
Moles NO3- = 3 Moles Al(NO3)3 = 0.0704 mol

Application of the Mole Concept

Empirical formula: Relative numbers of

atoms in a substance
can be obtained from elemental analysis data

Elemental analysis data

relative masses of elements in compound
can convert to relative numbers of atoms using
the atomic masses

Example
A compound contains 75.9% carbon, 17.7%
nitrogen, and 6.4% hydrogen by mass.
What is the empirical formula?
Step 1: Assume 100 g of sample.
100 g contains
75.9 g of C
17.7 g of N
6.4 g of H.

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Example
Step 2: Convert the masses of atoms in the
sample to moles, using the molar masses
of the atoms
1 mol C
75.9 g C
6.32 mol C
12.011 g C
1 mol N
17.7 g N
1.26 mol N
14.0067 g N
1 mol H
6.4 g H
6.3 mol H
1.0079 g H

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Example
Step 3: Calculate the mole ratio
Divide moles from step 2 by the smallest
value
6.32 6.3 1.26
C:H :N
:
:
5.01: 5.0 :1
1.26 1.26 1.26

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Example

The empirical formula is C5H5N

Note:
5.01 is not exactly 5
Remember:
It is a measurement
Measurements always have errors

13

LC: Empirical Formula

A compound contains C (63.8%), H (6.4%)
and N (29.8%). What is the empirical
formula?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

C2.5H3N1
C64H6N30
C5.3H6.3N2.1
C5H6N2
C10H12N4
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Solution: Empirical
Formula
A compound contains C (63.8%), H (6.4%) and
N (29.8%). What is the empirical formula?
In 100 g of sample there are:
63.8 g C(1 mol/12.011 g) = 5.31 moles C
6.4 g H(1 mol/1.0079 g) = 6.3 moles H
29.8 g N(1 mol/14.007 g) = 2.13 moles N
The mole ratio is therefore:
C : H : N = 2.49 : 3.0 : 1
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Solution: Empirical
Formula

2.49, is not a whole number ratio of N

In between 2 & 3
Not likely experimental error
Close to 2.5, or 5/2

Multiply the ratio by 2 to get whole numbers

2x(C:H:N)=5:6:2

The empirical formula is C5H6N2

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Strategy:
Mass %
Analysis
Data

Report result
(empirical
formula)

Divide by lowest
number of moles
to get mole ratio

Work out moles

of atoms in
100g of sample

Yes

Multiply by smallest
factor that will result
in whole-number ratio

Is
mole ratio
simple, whole
numbers
?
No
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Molecular Formula from

Empirical Formula
Need one more thing: Molar mass of cmpd

e.g. MW of compound is 136.15 g/mol.

Empirical formula is C4H4O. What is
molecular formula?
FW = (4x12.01)+(4x1.01)+16.00
= 68.08 g mol-1

About half the molar mass

Therefore, the molecular formula is C8H8O2
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e.g. Combustion Analysis

Used to find empirical formulae of

molecules containing only C, H & O
C converted to CO2
H is converted to H2O

CO2 and H2O trapped and weighed

mass % of C and H are found from stoichiometry
1 C atom per CO2 trapped; 2 H atoms per H2O

Remaining mass attributed to O

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Combustion of CHO Compounds

Stoichiometric equation for combustion of a
compound of C, H and O is:
CXHYOZ + {X+Y/4-Z/2} O2 X CO2 +Y/2 H2O

moles CO2 (RHS) = moles C atom (LHS)

moles H2O (RHS) = 1/2 moles H atom (LHS)

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Example
1.663 g of a C-H-O compound is combusted,
producing 3.48 g of CO2 and 0.712 g of H2O.
What is the empirical formula of the
compound?

1 mole of C atom produces 1 mole of CO2,

therefore,
1 mol C
1 mol CO

3.48 g CO 2

Amt. C =

44.01 g CO 2 1 mol CO 2

= 0.0791 mol C
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Example

1 mole of H2O produced implies 2 moles of

H in the compound

2 mol H
1 mol H 2 O
0
.712
g
H
O

2
Amt H =
18.02 g H 2 O 1 mol H 2 O

= 0.0790 mol H

H and C are in a 1:1 ratio in the original cmpd

Combined mass of H and C is:
(0.0791 mol)(12.01 g/mol) C +
(0.0790 mol)(1.008 g/mol) H = 1.03 g
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Example
The remainder of the compound is O
Mass of O = Mass of Cmpd - Mass of C+H
= 1.663 g - 1.030 g
= 0.633 g
Moles of O = (0.633 g)/(16.00 g mol-1)
= 0.0396 mol

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Example
The mole ratio, C:H:O is
0.0791 : 0.0790 : 0.0396
Or, dividing by 0.0396,
2.00 : 1.99 : 1
Therefore, the empirical formula is C2H2O

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Suggested Chapter 3
Exercises
Review Questions: 16-22.
Problems by Topic, Cumulative Problems,
Challenge Problems: 87, 89, 91, 95, 99, 107,
109, 113, 115, 117, 121, 125, 131, 139,
149.
Note: answers to all odd-numbered
problems are found in Appendix III.

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Part II: Stoichiometry

Molar interpretation of stoichiometric
coefficients
Stoichiometric ratios
Limiting reagents
Theoretical Yield
Percentage yield

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Balancing Chemical
Equations
Please review 4.2 (self-study) to remind
yourself how to write balanced chemical
equations.
The balanced chemical equation is key to
stoichiometry.

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Stoichiometry
Quantitative aspects of reactions
Relative moles of species in the reaction
Key: balanced chemical equation
From the equation can derive mole ratios

Like conversion factors in dimensional analysis

Convert reagent consumed into product formed

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29

Stoichiometric Ratios
Found from stoichiometric equation
Convert between equivalent molar amounts
of reactants and products in a particular
reaction
Treated like unit conversion factors

e.g., in the previous example, we used

2 mol H
1 mol H 2 O

Top and bottom are equivalent

factor equivalent to 1

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Warning! Warning!
Danger!

Before constructing stoichiometric ratios:

Ensure equation is balanced

Interpret values as moles of

e.g. for H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) H2O(l)

1 mol H2 0.5 mol O2 1 mol H2O

Ratios:

0.5 mol O 2
1 mol H 2

1 mol H 2O
0.5 mol O 2

1 mol H 2
1 mol H 2 O

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Typical Pitfall
Students sometimes use stoichiometric ratios
with mass data, without converting to moles
e.g. Find mass O2 reqd to form 16.7 g Fe2O3
from Fe3O4?

2Fe O (s) + 1/2O (g) 3 Fe O (s)

3 4
2
2 3
Balance First

Amateur error: Do not do this in a test!

0.5 O 2
mass O2 = 16.7 g Fe2O3
3 Fe 2 O3
G
= 2.78OgNO
2
R
W

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The Right Way

Stoichiometric ratios are MOLAR ratios

Convert moles of one substance into moles of
another substance

0.5 mol O 2
1 mol Fe 2 O3

moles O2 = 16.7g Fe2O3

159.7 g Fe 2 O3 3 mol Fe 2O3
= 1.7410-2 mol O2

Convert to
Convert to
32.00 g O 2 moles O
-2
moles
2
mass O2 = 1.7410 mol O2 Fe2O3
= 0.557 g O2

1 mol O 2

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Take-Home Message
In chemistry, the fundamental unit of amount
of a substance is the mole
Stoichiometry shows quantitative relationship
between reactants and products in a reaction
Stoichiometric info is summarised in the
balanced chemical equation
Data in mass units usually has to be converted
to moles before it is of ANY use
The conversion factor between mass and
moles is the molar mass (units: g mol-1)

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Concept: Limiting
Reagents

35

For Those Who Dont Bake:

36

Limiting Reagent & Theoretical

Yield

Limiting reagent (reactant) is completely

consumed in a reaction
Other reagents are said to be in excess

Limiting reagent limits amount of product

that can form
Basis for theoretical yield

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LC: Limiting Reagent &

Yield
Consider the following reaction:
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) 2 H2SO4 (aq)
Molar masses are: MSO2 = 64.06; MH2SO4 = 98.08; MO2
= 32.00.
In this reaction, 21.0 g of SO2 reacts with 5.00 g of
O2 and an excess amount of H2O.
Answer two LC questions:
1. What is the limiting reagent?
2. What mass of H2SO4 is produced?

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LC: Limiting Reagents

Consider the following reaction:
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) 2 H2SO4 (aq)
Molar masses are: MSO2 = 64.06; MH2SO4 = 98.08; MO2 =
32.00.
In this reaction, 21.0 g of SO2 reacts with 5.00 g of O2
and an excess amount of H2O.
What is the limiting reagent?
A. SO2
B. O2
C. H2O
D. H2SO4
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Solution

Convert masses to moles:

amt. SO2 = (21.0 g)/(64.06 g mol-1) = 0.328 mol
amt. O2 = (5.00 g)/(32.00 g mol-1) = 0.156 mol
amt. H2O = excess (given)

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Solution

Determine whether O2 or SO2 is the

limiting reagent from the stoichiometry.

(0.328 mol SO2)(1mol O2)/(2mol SO2)

= 0.164 mol O2

Need 0.164 mol O2 to react with available

SO2
Have only 0.156 mol O2
Therefore, O2 is limiting reagent

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LC: Yield
Consider the following reaction:
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l) 2 H2SO4 (aq)
Molar masses are: MSO2 = 64.06; MH2SO4 = 98.08; MO2 =
32.00.
In this reaction, 21.0 g of SO 2 reacts with 5.00 g of O2
and an excess amount of H2O.
What mass of H2SO4 is produced?
A. 0.312 g H2SO4
B. 0.328 g H2SO4
C. 26.0 g H2SO4
D. 30.6 g H2SO4
E. 32.2 g H2SO4
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Solution

How much H2SO4 if all the O2 is consumed?

(0.156 mol O2)(2 mol H2SO4)/(1 mol O2)
= 0.312 mol H2SO4

Convert to mass:
(0.312 mol H2SO4)(98.07 g/mol) = 30.6 g H2SO4
This is the Theoretical Yield of H2SO4

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Determining Limiting Reagents

the Easy Way
Convert masses to moles
Divide moles of each reagent by its
stoichiometric constant
Lowest ratio is limiting reagent.
e.g. In the preceding example,

SO2: (0.328 mol)/(2 mol) = 0.164

O2:

(0.156 mol)/(1 mol) = 0.156

(limiting reagent)

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Theoretical Yield
Theoretical yield: Mass of product formed if
a reaction goes to completion (limiting
reagent completely consumed)
Percent yield: Ratio of actual mass of
product formed, divided by the theoretical
yield, expressed as a percentage.
N.B. To find the theoretical yield, you must
first determine the limiting reagent.

45

Example
4.21g of cyclohexene (C6H10) reacts in
presence of 10.0 g Br2 to form 12.1 g of
1,2-dibromocyclohexane (C6H10Br2) as:
C6H10 (l) + Br2 (l) C6H10Br2 (l)
Find the theoretical and percent yields:
McHx= 82.14 g/mol
MBr2=

159.8 g/mol

McHxBr2 =

241.9 g/mol

46

Solution

Step 1: Convert masses to moles

C6H10: (4.21 g)(1 mol/82.14 g) = 0.0512 mol
Br2: (10.0 g)(1 mol/159.8 g) = 0.0625 mol

47

Solution

Step 2: Find the limiting reagent

C6H10 (both stoichiometric constants are 1)

48

Solution
Step 3: Find theoretical yield of C6H10Br2
amount: (0.0512 mol C6H10)(1mol C6H10Br2/1mol
C6H10)
= 0.0512 mol C6H10Br2

mass: (0.0512 mol)(241.9 g/mol) = 12.4 g

49

Solution

Step 4: Find % Yield

= [(12.1 g)/(12.4 g)]x100% = 97.6%

50

Summary
Stoichiometry is the quantitative
relationship between the reactants and
products
Think in MOLES!

molar mass converts mass to moles and vice

versa

Limiting reagent determines theoretical

yield
Know how to determine the limiting reagent
quickly

51

Suggested Chapter 4
Exercises

Review Questions: 1-4, 16.

Problems by Topic, Cumulative Problems,
Challenge Problems: 25, 29, 33, 35, 37, 61, 65,
67, 71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 83, 85, 107, 109, 125.
Note: answers to all odd-numbered problems are
found in Appendix III.
A solutions manual (with full solutions to oddnumbered problems) can be found through
Mastering Chemistry: log in, click on Study Area,
then click on Selected Solutions Manual, then
choose the chapter.

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