CELL DIVISION

DR.SUMAYYA BASHIR
AM COLLEGE

MITOSIS
A process by which the parent cell divides into two
genetically identical daughter cells.
Each daughter cell receives a chromosomal set
identical to that of the parent cell. (46
chormosomes)
Before a cell enters mitosis, each chromosome
replicates its deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
During this replication phase, chromosomes are
extremely long, they are spread diffusely through
the nucleus-chromatin network.

PHASES OF MITOSIS

PROPHASE
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE

PROPHASE
With the onset of mitosis, the chromosomes begin to
coil, contract, and condense; these events mark the
beginning of prophase.( mitos-thread in greek )
They keep on condensing until the very end of
prophase when they become distinguishable.
Each chromosome now consists of two parallel
subunits, chromatids, that are joined at a narrow
region common to both called the centromere.
Other changes: nuclear membrane begins to
disappear, nucleolus disintegrates, duplicated
centrosomes migrate to each pole of cell & mitotic
spindle appear between them.

PROPHASE

METAPHASE
The chromosomes line up in the equatorial plane.
The alignment is such that the centromeres come
to lie in a single transverse plane which in
perpendicular to long axis of spindle.
An additional set of microtubules is added to the
mitotic spindle
Microtubules is attached to chromosomes in the
centromere region at kinetochore
Each chromosome have two kinetochore
microtubules, these exert the pull on
chromosomes

METAPAHSE

ANAPHASE
Soon, the centromere of each chromosome
divides, marking the beginning of anaphase.
Followed by migration of chromatids to opposite
poles of the spindle.
During movement the centromere remains a little
ahead and arms trail behind.
At the end of anaphase the chromosomes are
clustered at the spindle poles.

ANAPHASE

TELOPHASE
Each telophase is characterized by the reappearance of
nuclei in the daughter cells.
The chromosomes revert to their semi dispersed state.
The nucleoli, chromatin, and nuclear envelope reappear.
While these nuclear alterations are taking place, a
constriction develops at the equatorial plane of the
parent cell, cleavage furrow.
The cleavage furrow deepens, karyokinesis is followed
by cytokinesis.
Each daughter cell receives half of all doubled
chromosome material and thus maintains the same
number of chromosomes as the mother cell.

TELOPHASE

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the cell division that takes place in the germ
cells to generate male and female gametes, sperm and
egg cells, respectively.
Because the ploidy is reduced from diploid to haploid,
meiosis I is referred to as a reductional division. Meiosis
II is an equational division analogous to mitosis, in
which the sister chromatids are segregated, creating
four haploid daughter cells (23 chromosomes, N) .
As in mitosis, male and female germ cells
(spermatocytes and primary oocytes) at the beginning
of meiosis I replicate their DNA so that each of the 46
chromosomes is duplicated into sister chromatids.

PROPHASE-I
Prophase I is the longest phase of meiosis. During
prophase I, DNA is exchanged between homologous
chromosomes in a process called crossing over.
The new combinations of DNA created during
crossover are a significant source of genetic
variation.
The paired and replicated chromosomes are called
bivalents or tetrads, which have two chromosomes
and four chromatids, with one chromosome coming
from each parent.
The process of pairing the homologous
chromosomes is called synapsis.

PROPHASE-I
Leptotene: the chromosome become visible as
thin strands.
Zygotene: the homologous chromosomes come
together in close apposition along the entire
length; synapses.
Pachytene: chromosomes become thicker &
shorter.
Diplotene: chromosomes begin to separate along
their length, each chromosome consist of two
chromatids; except at chiasma-leading to crossing
over.
Diakinesis: separation continues,chiasmata &
partly seperated chromosomes become more

METAPHASE-I
A spindle of microtubules is produced by the
centrioles
The bivalent chromosome pairs gather in
alignment on the center of spindle & form the
equatorial plate.

ANAPHASE-I
Chromosome of each homologous pair completely
separate & move to opposite poles of spindle.
No division of centromere occurs and whole
chromosomes move to opposite poles.
Random separation of homologous chromosomes
is another factor contributing to genetic diversity.

TELOPHASE-I
The nuclei are reconstituted & cytokinesis divides
the parents cell in two daughter cell
Each contain haploid chromosomes, but each
chromosome consists of two sister chromatids.

MEIOSIS-II
Meiosis II is the second part of the meiotic
process. Mechanically, the process is similar to
mitosis, though its genetic results are
fundamentally different.
The end result is production of four haploid cells
from the two haploid cells produced in meiosis I.
The four main steps of Meiosis II are:
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II

PROPHASE-II
There is disappearance of the nucleoli and the
nuclear envelope.
The shortening and thickening of the chromatids.
Centrosomes move to the polar regions and
arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic
division.

METAPHASE-II
In metaphase II, the centromeres contain two
kinetochores that attach to spindle fibers from the
centrosomes at opposite poles.

ANAPHASE-II
This is followed by anaphase II, in which the
remaining centromeric cohesin is cleaved allowing
the sister chromatids to segregate.
The sister chromatids by convention are now
called sister chromosomes as they move toward
opposing poles.

TELOPHASE-II
The process ends with telophase II, which is
similar to telophase I, and is marked by
decondensation and lengthening of the
chromosomes and the disassembly of the spindle.
Nuclear envelopes reform and cleavage or cell
wall formation eventually produces a total of four
daughter cells, each with a haploid set of
chromosomes.
Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four
new daughter cells.

CELL CYCLE
Cell belonging to renewing cell population undergo a sequence of
events that is repeated over & over again and is called cell cycle.
Its divided into two part: M-phase, (30-60 min) in which the
mitosis occur and Interphase, is the intervening period between
two consecutive cell divisions.
Interphase is further divided into
G1 phase: RNA & protein synthesis occur, cell volume is restored.
(8 hours)
S phase: synthesis of DNA occur, centrioles replicate. ( 8 hours)
G2 phase: production of energy & tubulin. (2-4 hours)
Static & stable cell leave cell cycle in G1 phase and enter G0
phase.
Cell proliferation is regulated by a group of genes called protooncogenes.

TISSUE REGENRATION
Labile cells are those in
which replication is
normally a continuous
process.
They include cells in:
epithelium of e.g. skin,
mucous membrane,
secretory glands,
ducts, uterus lining,
bone marrow, blood,
spleen and lymphoid
tissue.

Stable cells have

TISSUE REGENRATION
Permanent cells are unable to replicate after
normal growth is complete.
They include: nerve cells (neurons), skeletal and
cardiac muscle.

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