Cryptography and
Network Security
Chapter 11
Fifth Edition
by William Stallings
Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown
Chapter 11 Cryptographic
Hash Functions
Each of the messages, like each one he had ever
read of Stern's commands, began with a number
and ended with a number or row of numbers. No
efforts on the part of Mungo or any of his experts
had been able to break Stern's code, nor was
there any clue as to what the preliminary
number and those ultimate numbers signified.
Talking to Strange Men, Ruth Rendell
Message Authentication
message authentication is concerned with:
protecting the integrity of a message
validating identity of originator
non-repudiation of origin (dispute resolution)
will consider the security requirements
then three alternative functions used:
message encryption
message authentication code (MAC)
hash function
Security Requirements
disclosure
traffic
analysis
masquerade
content modification
sequence modification
timing modification
source repudiation
destination repudiation
4
Hash Functions
A
hash function H accepts a variable-length
block of data as input and produces a fixedsize hash value h = H(M)
usually
assume hash function is public
hash used to detect changes to message
want a cryptographic hash function
computationally infeasible to find data mapping
to specific hash (one-way property)
computationally infeasible to find two data to
same hash (collision-free property)
Cryptographic Hash Function
Symmetric encryption used
Provide authentication &
confidentiality
Hash
Functions
& Message
Authentication
Only hash code encrypted
Reduces the processing burden for those applications that do not
require confidentiality.
no encryption for message authentication
Because the secret value itself is not sent, an opponent cannot modify
an intercepted message and cannot generate a false message.
Confidentiality can be added to the approach of (c) by encrypting the
entire message plus the hash cod.
Hash Functions & Digital
Signatures
Other Hash Function Uses
to
create a one-way password file
store hash of password not actual password
for
intrusion detection and virus detection
keep & check hash of files on system
pseudorandom
function (PRF) or
pseudorandom number generator (PRNG)
Two Simple Insecure Hash
Functions
consider
two simple insecure hash functions
bit-by-bit exclusive-OR (XOR) of every block
Ci = bi1 xor bi2 xor . . . xor bim
a longitudinal redundancy check
reasonably effective as data integrity check
one-bit
circular shift on hash value
for each successive n-bit block
rotate current hash value to left by1bit and XOR block
good for data integrity but useless for security
Hash Function Requirements
Attacks on Hash Functions
have
brute-force attacks and cryptanalysis
a preimage or second preimage attack
find y s.t. H(y) equals a given hash value
collision
resistance
find two messages x & y with same hash so
H(x) = H(y)
value 2m/2 determines strength of
hash code against brute-force attacks
hence
128-bits inadequate, 160-bits suspect
Birthday Attacks
might think a 64-bit hash is secure
but by Birthday Paradox is not
birthday attack works thus:
given user prepared to sign a valid message x
m/
opponent generates 2 2 variations x of x, all with
essentially the same meaning, and saves them
m/
opponent generates 2 2 variations y of a desired
fraudulent message y
two sets of messages are compared to find pair with
same hash (probability > 0.5 by birthday paradox)
have user sign the valid message, then substitute the
forgery which will have a valid signature
conclusion is that need to use larger MAC/hash
Hash Function Cryptanalysis
cryptanalytic
attacks exploit some property
of alg so faster than exhaustive search
hash functions use iterative structure
process message in blocks (incl length)
attacks
focus on collisions in function f
Block Ciphers as Hash
Functions
can
use block ciphers as hash functions
using H0=0 and zero-pad of final block
compute: Hi = EMi [Hi-1]
and use final block as the hash value
similar to CBC but without a key
resulting
hash is too small (64-bit)
both due to direct birthday attack
and to meet-in-the-middle attack
other
variants also susceptible to attack
Secure Hash Algorithm
SHA originally designed by NIST & NSA in 1993
was revised in 1995 as SHA-1
US standard for use with DSA signature scheme
standard is FIPS 180-1 1995, also Internet RFC3174
nb. the algorithm is SHA, the standard is SHS
based on design of MD4 with key differences
produces 160-bit hash values
recent 2005 results on security of SHA-1 have
raised concerns on its use in future applications
Revised Secure Hash
Standard
NIST
issued revision FIPS 180-2 in 2002
adds 3 additional versions of SHA
SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512
designed
for compatibility with increased
security provided by the AES cipher
structure & detail is similar to SHA-1
hence analysis should be similar
but security levels are rather higher
SHA Versions
SHA-1
Message
digest size
SHA-224 SHA-256 SHA-384 SHA-512
160
224
256
384
512
< 264
< 264
< 264
< 2128
< 2128
Block size
512
512
512
1024
1024
Word size
32
32
32
64
64
Number of
steps
80
64
64
80
80
Message
size
SHA-512 Overview
SHA-512 Compression
Function
heart
of the algorithm
processing message in 1024-bit blocks
consists of 80 rounds
updating a 512-bit buffer
using a 64-bit value Wt derived from the
current message block
and a round constant based on cube root of
first 80 prime numbers
SHA-512 Round Function
SHA-512 Round Function
SHA-3
SHA-1
but similar to broken MD5 & SHA-0
so considered insecure
SHA-2
not yet "broken
(esp. SHA-512) seems secure
shares same structure and mathematical
operations as predecessors so have concern
NIST
announced in 2007 a competition for
the SHA-3 next gen NIST hash function
goal to have in place by 2012 but not fixed
SHA-3 Requirements
replace
SHA-2 with SHA-3 in any use
so use same hash sizes
preserve
the online nature of SHA-2
so must process small blocks (512 / 1024 bits)
evaluation
criteria
security close to theoretical max for hash sizes
cost in time & memory
characteristics: such as flexibility & simplicity
Summary
have
considered:
hash functions
uses, requirements, security
hash functions based on block ciphers
SHA-1, SHA-2, SHA-3
